50BN&IDER 


CALUMET  PUBIISHING  C^^ 


GIFT   OF 


uM^^Z^f^J^  oy^P^ 


Powdered 
Vegetable  Drugs 


BY 

ALBERT   SCHNEIDER,    M.    D.,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Botany  and  Pharmacognosy,  Northwestern  University  School 
of  Pharmacy,  Chicago. 


Published  by 

CALUMET  PUBUSHING  COMPANY, 

315  Home  Building, 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

1902 


Copyright,  1902,  by 
Albert  Schneider 

All  rights  reserved. 


J" 


ERRATA. 

Page  255,  5  lines  from  bottom,    "Pernumbuco"    should  be 
Pernambuco. 

Page  257,  last  line,  toiiteepice — Totite  epice. 
Page  260,  4  line  top,  langum — longum. 
Page  261,  middle  of  page,  Populii — Popiilus. 
Page  311,  Urticeae — Urticaceae. 
Page  317,  rophides — raphides. 


Fig.  129*  {R.ubus  villosus),  instead  of  Fig.  129  now  in  positiorb 


340719 


GENERAL  INDEX  TO  PART  I. 

(In  Part  II.  topics  are  arranged  in  alpliabetical  order,  hence  no  index 
is  required.) 


Achromatopsy,  14. 
Acid  taste,  28,  32. 
Acrid,  12. 
Adulteration,  57. 

accidental,  58. 

criminal,  60. 

detection  of,  67. 

material  used,  63. 

unintentional.  58. 
Air  chambers,  76. 
Alcoholic  drinks,  18. 
Anise,  21. 
Anodynes,  19. 
Aromatic  odors,  22. 

taste,  12. 
Artemisia,  106. 

Bacteria,  40. 
Bark,  8c. 

mner,  81. 

outer,  81. 
Bast,  81. 

Beetle,  carrion,  19. 
Bitter  taste,  28,  32. 
Botany,  pharmaceutical,  li. 
Buzzards,  19. 

Carbolic  acid,  20. 

Carbon  bisulphide,  47. 

Carrion  beetle,  19. 

Catarrh,  18. 

Chloroform,  48. 

Chlorphenol,  19. 

Clay,  66. 

Clearing  fluid,  71. 

CoUenchyma,  85. 

Coloring  substances,  67. 

Color  of  powders,  55,  104. 

Calor  reactions,  72. 

Colors,  modifications  of,  14,  15. 

naming  of,  14. 

natural  scale,  13. 

prismatic.  13. 

standards  of,  13. 


Common  names,  105. 
Cork,  83. 
Crystals,  82. 

Daltonism,  14. 

Diamond  dyes,  13. 

Dirt,  66. 

Drawings,  15. 

Drugs,  modification  of,  38. 

powdering  of,  49,  51,  53. 

selection  of,  49. 

tasteless,  36. 
Ducts,  81. 
Dyes,  13. 

Endosperm,  80. 
Epidermis,  7^. 
Equipment,  70. 
Exine,  77. 

Fineness  of  powders,  52,  70. 
Flowers,  77. 
Fruits,  79. 
Fungi,  42. 

Garbling,  49. 
Garlic,  18. 
Glands,  81. 
Gonidia,  45. 
Gum  camphor,  47. 

Hair  cells,  74. 
Histology,  II,  73. 
Hyena,  19. 
Hypoderm,  76. 

Imago.  45._ 
Identification,  87. 
Insects,  65. 

Larvae,  45. 

Laticiferous  ducts,  84. 
Lead,  57. 


Leaves,  "j},. 
Lenticels,  8r. 
Lichens,  44. 
Light,  13. 
Ligin  reaction,  72. 
Lime,  66. 

Meals,  65. 
Medullary  rays.  82. 
Methods,  70. 
Microns,  103. 
Mixing,  powders,  52. 

Names,  common.  105. 
Nebenzellen,  "^T),  75- 
Neighboring  cells,  Ti,  75. 

•Odor,  alliaceous,  25. 
anise,  22. 
ant,  25. _ 
aromatic,  22. 
bean,  22. 

bitter  almond,  24. 
bland,  24. 
briny,  24. 
camphor,  24. 
cannabis,  25. 
caraway,  24. 
chamomile,  23. 
chicory,  24. 
cinnamon,  22. 
clove,  23. 
disagreeable,  25. 
fenugreek,  23. 
flower,  22,. 
fragrant,  23. 
garlic,  25. 
hay,  24. 
indifferent,  24. 
intensity  of,  18. 
jalapa,  25. 
mint,  23. 
mouse,  25. 
musk,  24. 
nutmeg,  23. 
pungent,  18. 
quality  of,  17,  18. 
rancid,  25. 
seaweed,  24. 
smoky,  25. 
soil,  24. 
spicy,  22. 
standards  of,  17,  21. 


sumbul,  24. 

sulphurous,  25. 

tannin,  25. 

taraxacum,  26. 

lea,  24. 

valerian,  26. 

veg.  powders,  22. 

wintergreen,  24. 
Odorless  drugs,  26,  27. 
Olfactory  apparatus,  17. 
Onions,  18. 
Ozcena,  18. 

Palisade  tissue,  76. 
Pappus,  78. 
Parasites,  39. 

animal,  45. 

vegetable,  40. 
Parenchyma,  83. 
Pebbles,  67. 
Perfumes,  19. 
'  Pericarp,  80. 
Petals,  78. 
Petiole,  "/•]. 
Pharmacopoeia,  103. 
Phloroglucin,  72. 
Pith,  85. 
Pistil,  78. 
Pollen,  -JT. 

Powdering  drugs,  49,  50,  51,  53. 
Powders,  vegetable,  54. 

characteristics,  54. 

color  of,  II,  55,  104. 

examination  of,  70,  103. 

fineness,  52,  53,  70. 

keys  to,  87,  95. 

preservation  of,  54. 

study  of,  87. 
Prang,  14. 

Prismatic  colors,  13. 
Ptyalin,  34. 
Pungency,  31,  32. 
Pungent  odors,  18. 

Quince,  20. 
Quinine,  29,  32. 

Reactions,  color,  "^2. 
Rhizomes,  82. 
Roots,  82. 

Saffron,  13. 
Salty  taste,  28,  32. 


Sand,  66. 

Sapid  substances,  29. 
Sclerenchyma,  76,  78. 
Seeds,  79. 

Sensations,  tactile,  16. 
Sepals,  78. 
Skunk,  19. 
Sifting,  50. 
Sophistication,  57. 
Spicy  odor,  22. 
Spongy  tissue,  ^(i. 
Stamens,  ^^. 
Standards  of  odor,  21. 
Starches,  65. 
Stems,  85. 
Stomata,  75. 
Stone  cells,  ^(i,  78. 
Strychnin,  19. 
Substitution,  61,  62. 
Sunlight,  13. 
Sweet  taste,  28,  32. 


Tactile  sensations,  16. 
Taste,  28. 

acid,  28,  32. 

acrid,  32. 

agreeable,  31. 

aromatic,  12,  29. 


bitter,  28,  32. 
cooling,  32. 
gritty,  2,Z- 
gummy,  n. 
mixed,  35. 
mucilaginous,  32. 
of  drugs,  34. 
puckery,  2,2. 
pungent,  32. 
refreshing,  32. 
salty,  28,  31. 
simple,  34. 
standards,  28. 
sticky,  33. 
sweet,  28,  31. 

Tasteless  drugs,  36. 
Testa,  79. 
Tobacco,  18. 
Touch,  16. 
Trichomes,  74. 

Vascular  tissue,  T],  84. 
Vegetable  powders,  70. 
Vultures,  19. 

Wine  tasters,  18. 
Woods,  85. 


PREFACE. 

This  work  is  primarily  intended  as  a  text-book  for  the  use 
of  students  in  colleges  of  pharmacy.  It  will  also  be  found  very 
useful  by  the  practicing  pharmacist  in  determining  the  identity 
and  purity  of  the  vegetable  powders,  including  spices,  which  come 
under  his  direct  supervision. 

The  work  is  timely,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  critical  macro^ 
scopic  and  microscopic  examination  of  powdered  vegetable  drugs 
is  being  rapidly  introduced  in  our  leading  colleges  of  pharmacy. 
Such  a  study  is  highly  important  because  vegetable  powders  will 
undoubtedly  soon  receive  official  recognition  in  the  United 
States  Pharmacopoeia.  Furthermore,  the  practicing  pharmacist 
has  as  much  or  more  to  do  with  powdered  vegetable  drugs  than 
with  crude  vegetable  drugs,  and  it  is  certainly  his  prime  duty  to 
be  competent  to  pass  judgment  upon  them  as  to  purity  and  iden- 
tity. This  can  be  done  only  by  a  careful  microscopical  examina- 
tion of  the  powders,  combined  with  the  use  of  micro-chemical 
reagents  and  chemical  tests. 

There  are  several  very  important  German  and  French  works 
on  powdered  vegetable  drugs,  but  none  in  the  English  language, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  with  all  its  faults  and  imperfections  this  pres- 
ent work  may  meet  the  demands  of  the  progressive  movements 
in  pharmacy  and  pharmaceutical  education. 

The  drawings  are  all  on  the  same  uniform  scale,  made  by  the 
aid  of  an  Abbe  camera  lucida.  An  effort  has  been  made  to  figure 
the  more  important  histological  elements,  leaving  out  those  which 
would  be  of  no  special  diagnostic  value.  It  must  not  be  supposed, 
however,  that  any  attempt  has  been  made  to  indicate  in  the  figures 
the  relative  abundance  of  the  various  elements.  The  scale  of 
measurements  in  microns  is  to  be  used  with  all  the  figures  and  is 
only  approximately  correct ;  considerable  allowance  must  be  made 
for  natural  variation  in  size  as  well  as  form  of  cells  and  cell 
contents. 

Albert  Schneider. 

Chicago,  i\Iarch,  1902. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Preface 3 

Introduction 1 1 

PART  I. 

General  Considerations. 
CHAPTER  I. 

General  Suggestions  on  the  Examination  of  Vegetable 
Powders. 

I.  Light  and  Standards  of  Color 13 

II.  Tactile  Sensations 16 

III.  Odor  and  Odor  Standards 17 

IV.  Taste  and  Standards  of  Taste 28 

CHAPTER  II. 

Causes  Modifying  the  Characteristics  of  Powdered  Vegetable 

Drugs. 

I.     Normal  Variations 38 

II.     Parasites 39 

1.  Vegetable  Parasites 40 

a.  Bacteria 40 

b.  Hyphal  Fungi 42 

c.  Lichens 44 

2.  Animal  Parasites 45 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Powdering  of  Vegetable  Drugs. 

I.     Selection  of  Crude  Drugs  for  Powdering 49 

II.     Preparing  for  Powdering 49 

III.  Powdering 50 

IV.  Sifting 50 

V.     Fineness  of  Powders 52 

VI.     Preservation  of  Powders 54 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Adulteration  or  Sophistication  of  Vegetable  Drugs. 

I.     Adulteration  as  to  Intent. 58 

1.  Unintentional  or  Accidental  Adulteration 58 

2.  Intentional  or  Criminal  Adulteration 60 

II.     Manner  of  Adulteration 61 

1.  Partial  Substitution 61 

2.  Complete  Substitution 62 

III.  Substances  Employed  in  Sophistication 63 

1.  Organic  Substances 63 

a.  Closely  Related  Species  and  Varieties  ...  63 

b.  Remote  Species  and  Varieties 63 

c.  Refuse  and  Winnowings 64 

d.  Exhausted  Drugs 64 

e.  Inferior  Drugs 64 

/.     Starches  and  Meals 65 

g.     Insects  and  Insect  Remnants 65 

2.  Inorganic  Substances 66 

a.  Sand 66 

b.  Dirt,  Clay,  Lime 66 

c.  Coloring  Substances 67 

IV.  The  Detection  of  Adulteration 6y 


Contents.  7 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Microscopical  Examination  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

I.     Equipment  and  Methods 70 

II.     Histology  of  Plant  Organs 73 

1.  Leaves 73 

2.  Flowers yy 

3.  Fruits  and  Seeds   79 

4.  Barks   80 

5.  Stems 85 

6.  Woods 85 

7.  Other  Plants  and  Plant  Parts 86 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Keys  to  the  Identification  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

I.     Key  based  upon  Macroscopical  Characters 87 

II.     Key  based  upon  Microscopical  Characters 95 


PART  II. 

Special  Descriptions  of  Vegetable  Powders. 

1.  Absinthium.  10.  Anthemis. 

2.  Achillea.  11,  Apocynum  and. 

3.  Aconite,  leaf.  12.  Apocynum  can. 

4.  Aconite,  root.  13.  Areca,  nut. 

5.  Althaea.  14.  Arnica,  fl. 

6.  Amygdala.  15,  Arnica,  plant. 

7.  Amylum.  16.  Asarum. 

8.  Angustura.  17.  Asclepias, 

9.  Anisum.  18.  Aspidium. 


8 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


19.  Aspidosperma. 

20.  Aurantium  am. 

21.  Belladonna,  leaf. 

22.  Belladonna,  root. 

23.  Berberis. 

24.  Bryonia. 

25.  Buchu. 

26.  Cafifea. 
2^.  Calamus. 

28.  Calendula. 

29.  Calumba. 

30.  Canella. 

31.  Cannabis  Indica. 

32.  Capsicum. 

33.  Carbo  animalis. 

34.  Carbo  ligni. 

35.  Cardamom. 

36.  Carthamus. 

37.  Carum. 

38.  Car}'ophyllus. 

39.  Cascarilla. 

40.  Castanea. 

41.  Caulophyllum. 

42.  Cetraria. 

43.  Chamselirium. 

44.  Chelidonium. 

45.  Chenopodium. 

46.  Chimaphila. 

47.  Chirata. 

48.  Cichorium. 

49.  Cimicifuga. 

50.  Cinchona. 

51.  Cinnamon,  cassia. 

52.  Cinnamon,  Ceylon. 


53.  Cinnamon,  Saigon. 

54.  Cocculus. 

55.  Colchicum,  corm. 

56.  Colchicum,  seed. 

57.  Coca. 

58.  Colocynth. 

59.  Conium,  fruit. 

60.  Convallaria. 

61.  Coriander. 

62.  Cornus. 

63.  Coto. 

64.  Crocus. 

65.  Cubeba. 

66.  Curcuma. 

67.  Cusso. 

68.  Cypripedium. 

69.  Delphinium. 

70.  Dextrin. 

71.  Digitalis. 
'J2.  Dulcamara. 

73.  Ergot. 

74.  Eriodictyon. 

75.  Eucalyptus. 

76.  Euonymus. 
yy.  Eupatorium. 

78.  Fceniculum. 

79.  Foenum  Grsecum. 

80.  Frangula. 

81.  Galla,  aleppo. 

82.  Galla,  Chinese. 

83.  Gaultheria. 

84.  Gelsemium. 

85.  Gentian. 

86.  Geranium. 


87.  Glycyrrhiza. 

121,  ]\Iatico. 

88.  Gossypium. 

122.  Matricaria. 

89.  Granatum,  root  bark. 

123.  Menispermum. 

90.  Granatum,  stem  bark. 

124.  Mentha  pip. 

91.  Grindelia. 

125.  Mentha  vir. 

92.  Guaiacum,  wood. 

126.  Methysticum, 

93.  Guarana. 

127.  Mezerium. 

94.  Hsematoxylon. 

128.  Myrica,  bark. 

95.  Hamamelis. 

129.  Myristica. 

96.  Hedeoma. 

130.  Nux  vomica. 

97.  Helleborus. 

131.  Paracoto. 

98.  Humulus. 

132.  Pareira. 

99.  Hydrangea. 

133.  Physostigma. 

100.  Hydrastis. 

134.  Phytolacca,  fruit. 

loi.  Hyoscyamus,  leaves. 

135.  Phytolacca,  root. 

102.  Hyoscyamus,  seeds. 

136.  Pilocarpus. 

103.  Ignatia. 

137.  Pimenta. 

104.  Illicium. 

138.  Piper,  black. 

105.  Inula. 

139.  Piper,  Avhite. 

106.  Ipecac. 

140.  Podophyllum. 

107.  Iris  flor. 

141.  Populus. 

108.  Iris  vers. 

142.  Prinos. 

109.  Jalapa. 

143.  Prunus  Serotina. 

no.  Juglans. 

144.  Pulsatilla. 

III.  Kamala. 

145.  Pyrethrum,  fl. 

112.  Krameria,  Peruvian. 

146.  Pyrethrum,  root. 

113.  Krameria,  Savanilla. 

147.  Quassia. 

114.  Lappa. 

148.  Quercus. 

115.  Leptandra. 

149.  Ouillaia. 

116.  Linum. 

150.  Rhamnus  Pursh. 

117.  Lobelia. 

151.  Rheum. 

118,  Lupulin. 

152.  Rhus  glabra,  bark 

119.  Lycopodium. 

153.  Rhus  glabra,  fruit. 

120.  Mace, 

154.  Rosa  gallica. 

10 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


155.  Rubus. 

156.  Rumex. 

157.  Sabadilla. 

158.  Sabina. 

159.  Salix. 

160.  Sambucus,  fl. 

161.  Sanguinaria. 

162.  Santonica. 

163.  Sarsaparilla. 

164.  Sassafras,  bark. 

165.  Scilla. 

166.  Scoparius. 

167.  Scopola,  root. 

168.  Scutellaria. 

169.  Senega. 

170.  Senna. 

171.  Serpentaria. 

172.  Sinapis  alba. 

173.  Sinapis  nigra. 

174.  Spigelia. 

175.  Staphisagria. 


176.  Stillingia. 

177.  Stramonium,  leaf. 

178.  Stramonium,  seeds. 

179.  Strophanthus. 

180.  Sumbul. 

181.  Tabacum. 

182.  Taraxacum 

183.  Thea. 

184.  Theobroma. 

185.  Turnera,  leaf. 

186.  Ulmus. 

187.  Uva  ursi. 

188.  Valerian. 

189.  Vanilla. 

190.  Veratrum  vir. 

191.  Viburnum  op. 

192.  Viburnum  prun. 

193.  Wintera. 

194.  Xanthoxylum. 

195.  Zingiber. 


General  Considerations.  ii 


PART  I. 

General  Considerations* 

In  establishing  a  comparatively  new  branch  of  science  or 
study,  it  is  necessary  to  enter  into  the  consideration  of  details 
which  become  unnecessary  and  unimportant  when  the  subject  is 
more  fully  understood.  This  applies  to  the  study  of  powdered 
vegetable  drugs,  and  in  Part  I  we  shall  treat  of  such  details  re- 
lating to  the  study  of  vegetable  powders  as  are  essential  to  a  better 
comprehension  of  the  subject. 

Leading  authorities  in  the  study  of  vegetable  powders  have 
encountered  considerable  difficulty  in  determining  the  color  of  the 
individual  powders.  The  grosser,  more  marked  histological  char- 
acters of  the  majority  of  vegetable  drugs,  have  been  quite  ac- 
curately described  by  various  investigators,  but  there  is  much 
uncertainty  and  confusion  regarding  some,  and  these  require  more 
careful  investigation  as  to  botanical  origin,  supplemented,  of 
course,  by  a  careful  histological  study. 

Pharmaceutical  botany,  as  it  applies  to  histology  in  particu- 
lar, has  not  as  yet  become  sufficiently  developed  and  specialized. 
In  the  histological  study  of  vegetable  drugs  the  chief  attention  is 
to  be  given  to  cell-forms  and  cell-contents,  as  these  are  of  prime 
importance  in  the  identification  and  critical  comparison  of  vege- 
table drugs,  as  will  be  more  fully  explained  at  the  close  of  Part  I. 

Considerable  difficulty  was  encountered  in  determining  the 
color  of  powdered  vegetable  drugs.  No  other  characteristic  is 
more  variable.  The  colors  given  apply  to  powders  quite  recently 
prepared  from  good  specimens  of  crude  drugs.  The  student 
must,  however,  constantly  keep  in  mind  the  possible  deviations 


12  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

from  the  color  given,  dependent  upon  differences  in  fineness,  qual- 
ity of  drug  used,  possible  substitution  and  adulteration,  age  of 
powder  and  exposure  to  light  and  moisture. 

It  will  be  noted  that  such  terms  as  "aromatic  taste,"  "pun- 
gently  aromatic,"  and  similar  terms  combining  taste  and  odor, 
have  been  omitted,  as  they  are  confusing  and  inaccurate.  The 
term  "acrid"  is  dropped  because  it  is  syonymous  with  pungent, 
and  various  authors  have  used  it  in  a  very  loose  and  confusing 
sense. 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  13 


CHAPTER  L 

General  Suggestions  on  the  Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders. 

I.     Light  and  Standards  of  Color. 

The  subject  of  the  color  of  powdered  drugs,  as  well  as  of 
other  substances,  is  still  confused  for  several  reasons.  First,  be- 
cause there  are  no  reliable  standards  of  color,  and  second,  because 
of  the  variable  naming  of  colors.  The  artificial  color  standards 
used  by  teachers  of  the  primary  grades,  artists,  cloth  manufac- 
turers, furniture  and  house  painters,  etc.,  are  very  far  from  relia- 
ble. No  matter  from  what  material  the  color  is  made,  or  how 
carefully  it  is  prepared,  it  is  subject  to  variation  in  intensity  and 
quality.  The  most  durable  colors  used  by  artisans  at  the  present 
time  lose  their  factory  gloss  or  tint  in  a  very  short  time.  Some 
of  the  colors  used  by  ancient  mural  painters  and  by  Orientals  of 
the  present  time  are  more  durable,  but  far  from  unchangeable. 
It  is  practically  impossible  to  print  color  scales  which  are  uniform 
throughout  and  which  will  not  fade.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
certain  substances  having  well  recognized  and  comparatively  per- 
manent colors  be  used  as  standards  of  comparison,  as  the  choco- 
late brown  of  chocolate,  the  cinnamon  brown  of  cassia  cinnamon, 
the  saffron  yellow  of  a  standard  solution  of  Spanish  saffron,  etc. 
I  have  found  solutions  of  the  so-called  Diamond  dyes  compara- 
tively permanent,  more  so  than  the  aniline  dyes  as  ordinarily  em- 
ployed by  biologists.  Even  these  substances  are  subject  to  error 
in  preparation  and  are  not  sufficiently  permanent  to  serve  as  relia- 
ble standards.  It  would  be  possible  to  prepare  a  natural  scale  of 
colors  by  projecting  the  prismatic  colors  of  direct  sunlight  upon 


14  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

a  uniform  screen.  It  would  be  necessary  to  use  prisms  of  imi- 
form  size  and  made  of  a  uniform  quality  of  glass.  Any  desired 
tint  or  shade  could  be  produced  by  interposing  various  shades 
and  tints  of  milk  glass  and  smoked  glass  of  standard  thickness. 
Even  such  a  standard  of  colors  is  subject  to  some  variation,  leav- 
ing out  of  consideration  personal  differences  in  visualizing  power 
and  the  power  to  discriminate  between  differences  in  color.  Those 
with  defective  eye-sight  will  have  difficulty  in  recognizing  many 
tints  and  shades.  Those  who  have  inherited  color  blindness 
(achromatopsy,  Daltonism)  fail  to  recognize  certain  colors 
entireh'. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  recognition  and  com- 
parison of  colors  is  the  confused  naming  of  colors,  or  rather  the 
use  of  terms  which  can  only  be  understood  by  those  who  are 
familiar  with  the  colors  referred  to.  For  instance  such  names  as 
purple,  royal  purple,  scarlet,  indigo,  violet,  crimson,  magenta, 
ecru,  mauve,  cerise,  heliotrope,  lavender,  marine  blue,  terra  cotta, 
Pompeian  red,  canary  red,  Chinese  yellow,  etc.,  are  wholly  devoid 
of  meaning  to  the  uninitiated.  All  the  possible  colors  are  simply 
the  recognizable  tints  and  shades  of  the  primary  colors  red,  yellow 
and  blue,  and  the  recognizable  admixtures  of  these  primary  col- 
ors. It  would,  therefore,  be  possible  to  select  such  color  names 
as  would  indicate  the  shade  or  tint  of  any  primary  color  or  admix- 
ture of  primary  colors  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  comprehended 
by  any  one,  and  enable  him  to  reproduce  the  color  if  desirable. 
Such  a  system  of  color  nomenclature  has  been  proposed  by  Prang. 
Prang  worked  upon  this  scheme  for  nearly  half  a  centur\%  and  it 
is  doubtless  the  most  complete  system  of  its  kind.  It  is  extens- 
ively used  for  teaching  colors  in  schools,  by  artists  and  by  manu- 
facturers of  colored  fabrics  of  all  kinds. 

Prang's  color  scale  is  made  from  artificially  prepared  colors 
printed  upon  paper,  and  is,  therefore,  not  a  reliable  standard. 
There  are  a  multitude  of  conditions  which  modify  the  colors  of 
the  plates.     Variations  in  the  mixing  of  the  colors,  differences  in 


EXAMIXATION    OF   VEGETABLE    PoWDERS.  1$ 

the  quality  and  thickness  of  the  paper  used,  differences  in  the 
force  of  the  press,  etc.  Even  should  the  thousands  of  copies  come 
quite  uniform  from  the  press,  the  colors  will  subsequently  fade, 
and  the  rate  of  fading  will  depend  largely  upon  the  amount  of 
handling  and  exposure  to  light.  In  spite  of  all  these  objections 
the  colors  are  fairly  reliable  as  standards  of  comparison.  Prang's 
color  nomenclature  is  simple,  and  can  readily  be  understood  and 
applied  by  any  one.  It  may  be  applied  in  giving  the  colors  of  the 
powdered  vegetable  drugs. 

It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  form  and  texture  greatly 
modify  the  color.  This  is  true  of  drugs  as  well  as  other  sub- 
stances. The  same  color  on  a  rough  and  a  smooth  surface  will 
present  a  markedly  different  tone;  the  rough  surface  producing 
a  shade  effect,  hence  the  color  will  appear  darker.  In  the  case  of 
powdered  drugs  it  will  be  noticed  that  fineness  greatly  modifies 
the  color,  the  finer  powders  producing  tint  effects  as  a  rule.  In 
some  instances  a  difference  in  fineness  may  even  modify  the  qual- 
ity of  the  color  entirely  (licorice  root).  Other  conditions  modify- 
ing the  color  and  form  of  drugs  will  be  mentioned  in  Chapter  II. 

We  need  scarcely  urge  the  necessity  of  good  illumination  in 
the  inspection  of  powders.  The  powder  should  be  carefully  com- 
pared with  the  description  given  in  the  text-book.  In  nearly 
every  instance  the  student  will  find  some  slight  deviations  of  the 
color  and  consistency  observed  and  that  given  in  the  book.  The 
author  has  endeavored  to  give  the  characteristics  of  the  type  or 
representative  specimens.  The  specimen  studied  may  vary  con- 
siderably from  the  type  description.  An  effort  should,  therefore, 
be  made  to  account  for  the  differences,  whether  they  are  differ- 
ences of  color,  odor,  consistency  or  taste. 

Whenever  possible,  the  student  should  make  careful  draw- 
ings of  the  microscopic  structure  of  powder.  The  value  of  this 
cannot  be  overestimated.  In  order  to  make  a  correct  drawing 
the  student  is  compelled  to  study  the  powder  carefully ;    further- 


l6  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

more,  the  act  of  making  the  drawing,  as  well  as  the  drawing  itself, 
will  impress  the  structural  characters  more  firmly  upon  the  mind. 

II.     Tactile  Sensations. 

Touch,  as  it  applies  to  the  examination  of  drugs,  is  a  tactile 
sensation  appreciated  by  the  hand  and  fingers,  the  tongue  and 
mouth,  rarely  also  the  larynx.  The  touch  of  fingers  and  hands 
conveys  to  the  mind  conceptions  of  coarseness  or  fineness,  fatty, 
oily  or  unctuous  condition,  crispness,  of  moisture,  dryness,  muci- 
laginous condition,  tendency  to  lumpiness,  etc.  In  many  in- 
stances the  sense  of  touch  is  merely  an  aid  to  the  sense  of  sight — 
that  is,  touch  verifies  or  assists  the  visual  judgment  as  to  the 
above  properties. 

The  tactile  sense  of  the  fingers  may  be  greatly  increased  in 
delicacy  by  education  and  practice  and  by  proper  care.  The  most 
sensitive  parts  of  the  fingers  are  the  tips ;  this  sensitiveness  is 
greatly  enhanced  by  cleanliness  of  hands  and  nails.  The  nails 
should  be  carefully  and  evenly  trimmed,  but  never  very  short,  as 
that  reduces  sensitiveness.  The  clean,  trimmed,  free  portion  of 
the  nail  duplicates  or  magnifies  the  tactile  sense  by  pressing  upon 
the  opposing  delicate  dermis  when  the  finger  is  brought  in  contact 
with  an  object.  Cold  reduces  sensitiveness  very  rapidly;  wash- 
ing in  warm  water  restores  the  normal  activity  promptly. 

An  intelligent  use  of  the  tactile  sense  of  fingers,  combined 
with  the  sense  of  sight,  will  aid  the  student  in  forming  some  esti- 
mate of  the  identity  of  the  powder. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  moisture  greatly  modifies 
the  character  of  powders.  For  instance,  a  powder  which  appears 
quite  crisp  when  dry  may  become  somewhat  soft  in  moist  weather, 
indicating  the  presence  of  some  bast  or  perhaps  elongated  paren- 
chyma cells  (many  barks). 

Tactile  sensations  usually  designated  as  tastes  and  odors  will 
be  explained  later.     We  would  advise  students  to  depend  largely 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  17 

upon  the  tactile  sense  of  the  hand  and  fingers,  though  Hps,  tongue 
and  mouth  are  more  sensitive.  Frequent  and  promiscuous  tasting 
and  chewing  of  drugs  is  pernicious  for  several  reasons. 

III.     Odor  and  Odor  Standards. 

The  sense  of  smell  is  as  yet  imperfectly  understood.  Consid- 
erable theoretical  discussion  has  been  entered  into  lately  as  re- 
gards the  chemistr}-  of  odor  sensations.  The  olfactory  apparatus 
is  undoubtedly  the  least  reliable  of  all  the  sense  organs.  There  is 
no  standard  of  odors,  nor  do  we  have  any  means  of  measuring 
odors.  A  number  of  individuals  may  smell  the  same  odor,  but 
they  have  no  means  of  comparing  either  the  quality  or  the  quan- 
tity of  the  odor.  This  being  the  case,  it  naturally  follows  that 
there  is  no  reliable  odor  nomenclature.  Odors  are  variously  clas- 
sified as  agreeable  or  pleasant,  indifferent,  strong,  faint,  fragrant 
aromatic,  heavy,  acid,  pungent,  sweet,  etc.,  words  which  are  vari- 
able in  meaning  and  application. 

An  odor  is  said  to  be  strong  or  faint  according  to  individual 
judgment.  An  odor  may  be  "overpowering"  to  one  person,  while 
another  will  pronounce  it  moderately  strong,  or  give  it  no  special 
attention. 

An  odoriferous  substance  must  be  in  a  gaseous  state  and  must 
stimulate  the  special  nerves  of  smell.  The  odoriferous  gas  or 
vapor  must  enter  the  anterior  nares  in  a  large  and  continuous  cur- 
rent. If  the  nostrils  are  held  shut,  though  the  passages  are  filled 
with  the  gas,  no  odor  can  be  detected.  Filling  the  nostrils  with 
liquids  holding  odoriferous  gases  in  solution  will  not  act  upon  the 
olfactory  nerves.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  odors  entering 
the  nostrils  by  way  of  the  posterior  nares  cannot  be  smelled. 

The  olfactory  nerves  become  fatigued  very  quickly,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  readiness  with  which  one  becomes  "accustomed" 
to  an  odor.  Tenants  of  ill-ventilated  rooms,  in  which  the  stench 
is  often  overpowering,  do  not  detect  any  bad  odor.     Those  ad- 


i8  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

dieted  to  the  use  of  tobacco  are  blissfully  unconscious  of  the 
strong  odor  which  not  only  permeates  the  entire  clothing,  but 
also  the  entire  system  and  the  atmosphere  about  them.  Con- 
sumers of  alcoholic  drinks  are  not  aware  of  their  alcoholic  breath. 
Those  who  habitually  eat  onions  and  garlic  are  not  conscious  of 
the  sulphurous  odor  which  is  so  annoying  to  others.  Those  af- 
fected with  ozoena  or  bad  breath,  due  to  nasal  catarrh,  a  disor- 
dered stomach  or  bad  teeth,  do  not  detect  the  odor. 

The  condition  of  the  olfactory  organs  greatly  modifies  the 
appreciation  of  odors.  If  the  nasal  passages  are  more  or  less 
occluded  through  catarrhal  inflammations,  pathological  growths 
as  polypoids,  etc.,  the  sense  of  smell  may  be  very  much  reduced 
or  practically  zero.  Those  affected  with  chronic  nasal  catarrh 
have  a  weak  and  otherwise  abnormal  sense  of  smell.  The  sense 
of  smell  in  difTerent  persons  differs,  not  only  by  inheritance,  but 
also  by  education.  Savage  races  and  many  of  the  higher  herbi- 
vora  and  carnivora  have  an  exceedingly  acute  sense  of  smell  for 
certain  odors,  while  for  other  odors  this  sense  is  quite  dull.  Civ- 
ilized man  is  capable  of  detecting  the  largest  number  of  different 
odors.  He  is  also  capable  of  educating  this  sense  to  a  very  high 
degree,  as  in  "wine-tasters,"  who  are  capable  of  detecting  differ- 
ences in  aroma  which  wholly  escape  the  uneducated  and  inexpe- 
rienced. 

In  order  that  the  sense  of  smell  may  be  fairly  delicate,  the 
nasal  passages  should  be  quite  roomy,  the  Schneiderian  mem- 
brane entirely  free  from  inflammation  and  other  abnormal  con- 
ditions. The  membrane  should  be  quite  moist  with  the  natural 
secretion  of  the  mucus  cells,  rather  than  comparatively  dry.  The 
nasal  passages  are  also  well  supplied  with  nerve  endings  of  com- 
mon sensation,  which  will  explain  why  many  tactile  sensations  are 
mistaken  for  odors,  as,  for  example,  the  so-called  pungent  odors. 
In  contradistinction  to  the  other  senses,  electrical,  thermal  and 
mechanical  stimuli  do  not  cause  sensations  of  odor. 

The  intensity  of  the  odor  is  directly  proportional  to  the  con- 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  19 

ceiitration  and  volume  of  the  odoriferous  gas  and  the  rate  with 
which  it  passes  through  the  nostrils.  The  olfactory  apparatus  is 
extremely  sensitive  when  in  a  perfectly  normal  state.  Accord- 
ing to  some  authorities,  the  odor  of  mercaptan  is  still  quite  mark- 
ed when  diluted  300,000,000  times,  and  becomes  inappreciable 
only  when  diluted  500,000,000  times.  The  odor  of  chlorphenol 
is  still  noticeable  when  diluted  1,000,000,000  times.  Certain  drugs 
and  chemicals  will  modif}-  the  sense  of  smell.  Anodynes  and  so- 
porifics will  reduce  it  in  activity,  while  strychnin  and  some  other 
substances  will  increase  its  activity. 

As  regards  the  estimates  of  the  quality  of  odors,  there  is  even 
more  uncertainty  than  there  is  concerning  the  quantity.  In  a 
general  way  odors  are  designated  as  agreeable  or  pleasant,  indif- 
ferent and  disagreeable ;  but  it  becomes  evident  that  such  a  classi- 
fication is  very  unsatisfactory,  owing  to  personal  differences.  If 
we  go  back  to  some  of  the  lower  organisms,  we  will  find  that  cer- 
tain odors  are  agreeable  because  they  emanate  from  desirable  sub- 
stances. The  carrion  beetle  undoubtedly  finds  the  odor  of  decay- 
ing animal  matter  agreeable.  Certain  insects  are  attracted  to 
flowers  having  the  odor  of  carrion.  In  fact  all  substances,  though 
they  may  give  rise  to  the  most  disagreeable  odors,  according  to 
man's  judgment,  are  eagerly  sought  after  by  a  host  of  lower  or- 
ganisms. Even  such  highly  organized  animals  as  buzzards,  vul- 
tures and  hyenas  are  attracted  to  decaying  animal  matter.  Many 
insects  are,  however,  attracted  by  pleasant  odors,  as  is  indicated  by 
the  odors  of  entomophilous  flowers.  All  of  the  higher  animals  rec- 
ognize the  odor  of  the  skunk  as  disagreeable,  and  this  serves  as  a 
means  of  self-defense. 

In  civilized  man  the  judgment  of  the  quality  of  odors  is 
greatly  influenced  by  temperament  and  education ;  those  who 
fancy  the  odor  of  musk  are  said  to  be  cruel  and  lacking  in  culture ; 
those  who  fancy  the  simple  perfumes,  as  violet  and  rose,  are  said 
to  be  cultured  and  refined ;  those  in  favor  of  mixed  odors  are 
said  to  lack  stabilitv  of  character.     Even  though  there  may  be 


20  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

little  or  no  truth  to  these  statements,  the  fact  remains  that  the 
liking  for  odors  varies  greatly.  There  are  some  remarkable  in- 
stances of  differences  of  judgment  to  be  noted.  One  scholar  of 
much  experience  maintained  that  the  odor  of  hydrogen  sulphide 
was  agreeable.  Most  physicians  find  the  odor  of  carbolic  acid 
pleasant,  while  many  others  find  it  decidedly  disagreeable.  Some 
pharmacists  maintain  that  dried  taraxacum  roots  are  odorless, 
while  others  note  a  very  decided  disagreeable  odor.  The  farmer, 
on  entering  the  crowded  habitations  of  a  large  city,  will  note  dis- 
agreeable odors  which  escape  the  notice  of  the  inhabitants  en- 
tirely. On  the  other  hand,  the  city  dweller,  on  visiting  the  farm, 
will  note  the  disagreeable  odors  about  stables  and  cattle-pens 
which  the  farmer  ignores  or  speaks  of  as  being  rather  agreeable. 
Every  farmer  enjoys  the  "fresh  smell  of  the  soil,"  which  is  a  faint, 
musty  odor  of  decaying  organic  particles  associated  with  the  cool 
vapors  arising  from  the  damp,  upturned  earth. 

In  man  the  utility  of  odors  is  no  longer  of  prime  importance. 
In  some  instances,  however,  they  no  doubt  still  serve  such  a  pur- 
pose. For  instance,  we  are  attracted  by  the  odors  of  most  ripen- 
ing fruits,  as  apples,  oranges  and  berries  ;  while  we  find  the  odor 
of  poisonous  plants,  as  stramonium,  belladonna,  tobacco,  Indian 
hemp,  etc.,  decidedly  disagreeable.  There  are,  however,  some 
fruits  which  have  pleasant  odors  which  are  nevertheless  inedi- 
ble to  man,  as,  for  instance,  the  quince  (raw). 

There  are  certain  suggestions  which  the  student  will  find 
useful  in  testing  the  odors  of  vegetable  drugs.  It  is  always  ad- 
visable to  leave  the  examination  of  drugs  with  marked  odors  until 
the  last,  as  the  strong  odors  will  not  only  be  confusing  in  testing 
weaker  odors,  but  will  dull  and  fatigue  the  sense  of  smell  very 
quickly.  Furthermore,  if  the  fingers  and  hand  are  brought  in 
contact  with  a  very  odoriferous  substance,  it  is  no  easy  matter  to 
remove  it  preparatory  to  examining  another  drug.  For  instance, 
if  garlic  is  rubbed  on  the  hand,  repeated  washings  will  not  re- 
move the  odor;    in  fact,  it  will  often  be  appreciable  for  several 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  21 

days.  The  odor  of  star  anise  (illicium)  is  also  very  persistent. 
All  medical  students  know  how  difficult  it  is  to  remove  the  dis- 
secting-room odor  from  hands ;  repeated  washings  with  soap  and 
hot  water  and  dusting  with  charcoal  is  necessary. 

As  soon  as  a  drug  has  been  tested  for  its  odor  and  taste  it 
should  be  set  aside.  The  odor  should  be  removed  from  hands 
by  washing  in  warm  water  and  then  wiping  them  perfectly  dry 
with  a  clean  towel. 

To  develop  the  odor,  place  a  goodly  pinch  of  the  powder  in 
the  palm  of  one  hand  and  rub  it  with  the  thumb  and  finger  tips 
of  the  other  hand,  closing  the  palm  as  much  as  possible.  The 
rubbing  should  be  done  briskly  and  with  considerable  force.  Now 
bring  the  hand  near  the  nose  and  open  the  palm  somewhat.  The 
warmth  and  moisture  of  the  hand  causes  the  odoriferous  sub- 
stance to  rise  and  enter  the  nostrils.  The  odor  is  accentuated  by 
sniffing — that  is,  by  a  series  of  sharp  and  rapid  inhalations,  caus- 
ing the  air  charged  with  the  odor  to  enter  the  nostrils  in  larger 
volumes.  The  hands  and  fingers  should  not  be  wet,  as  excessive 
moisture  absorbs  much  of  the  odoriferous  gas  and  thus  reduces 
the  intensity  of  the  odor.  If  one  powder  has  been  rubbed  in  one 
palm,  the  second  should  be  placed  in  the  other  palm;  this  will 
tend  to  reduce  the  mixing  and  confusing  of  odors  in  instances 
where  hurried  examination  of  several  powders  is  necessary  and 
when  no  opportunity  presents  itself  for  removing  the  first  odor 
from  palm  and  fingers. 

Since  there  are  neither  qualitative  nor  quantitative  odor 
standards,  it  is  difficult  to  make  comparisons,  and  the  information 
gained  from  the  comparisons  is  unreliable.  Many  of  the  vegeta- 
ble drugs,  however,  have  very  decided  odors,  so  that  it  is  possible 
to  identify  them  by  this  characteristic  alone.  If  we  make  a  com- 
parison of  the  diflferent  drugs  we  find  that  those  having  odors 
may  be  grouped  according  to  a  similarity  of  odors  as  compared 
with  certain  types.  This  grouping  would  be  an  easy  matter  if  the 
odors  were  simple,  but,  unfortunately,  they  are  not ;    most  odor- 


22  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

iferous  drugs  have  a  mixed  odor.  For  instance,  chenopodinm 
has  a  rather  faint  camphoraceous  odor,  but  in  addition  it  has  a 
very  disagreeable  odor.  Spearmint  has  a  fragrant  odor  in  addi- 
tion to  the  aromatic  minty  odor.  Roman  pellitory  has  a  faintly 
aromatic  odor  in  addition  to  a  disagreeable  odor  resembling  that 
of  taraxacum.  The  odor  of  calamus  is  spicy  and  camphoraceous, 
etc.  Since  there  is  no  odor  standard,  there  is  also  no  satisfactory 
odor  nomenclature.  Authors  speak  of  sour  odor,  sweet  odor  and 
pungent  odor,  terms  which  are  wholly  meaningless  and  inappli- 
cable. The  so-called  sour  odor  is  an  odor  which  we  have  learned 
to  associate  with  sour  taste ;  the  sweet  odor  is  so  called  because  of 
an  odor  associated  with  a  sweet  taste.  Some  speak  of  fragrant 
odors  as  sweet,  which  is  simply  a  misuse  of  the  term  sweet.  As 
already  indicated,  pungent  odors  are  tactile  sensations. 

The  following  is  a  classification  of  the  odors  to  be  detected 
in  the  more  common  vegetable  drugs.  Certain  drugs  are  chosen 
as  types  or  provisional  standards,  because  they  possess  the  odors 
in  a  marked  and  comparatively  pure  degree. 

Odors  of  Vegetable  Powders. 

A.      AGREEABLE  ODORS. 

/.     Aromatic  or  Spicy. 

1.  Anise   Type    (spicy  and   fragrant) — Anise   fennel, 

star  anise,  sassafras  bark. 

2.  Chocolate  or  Cacao  Bean  Type  (faintly  aromatic) 

— Cacao  beans,  butter  and  hulls,  quarana 
(faint),  coffee  (very  faint). 

3.  Cinnamon  Type  (very  spicy  or  aromatic,  related  to 

clove  type) — Cinnamons,  canella,  cinnamo- 
dendron,  cascarilla,  coto-bark,  paracoto,  win- 
tera. 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  23 

4.  Clove    Type     (very    aromatic) — Cloves,     asarum, 

ginger,  pimenta,  cubeb,  calamus,  pepper  (not 
marked),  cardamom,  coriander,  carum,  myr- 
ica  leaves. 

5.  Fcenugreek    Type     (faintly    aromatic,    somewhat 

fragrant,  characteristic) — Foenugreek,  iris 
vers.,  elm  bark. 

6.  ]\Iint   Type    (very   aromatic) — Peppermint,   spear- 

mint (aromatic  and  fragrant),  horsemint, 
pennyroyal,  buchti. 

7.  Nutmeg   Type    (very   aromatic) — Nutmeg,   mace, 

cola  nut  (faint). 

//.     Fragrant,  Frequently  Designated  as  Szveet. 

1.  Honey   Type    (faintly    fragrant,   related   to   flower 

type) — Honey,  manna,  myrrh,  benzoin,  stor- 
ax,  quaiacum  (very  faint). 

2.  Fruit  or  Apple  Type    (very   fragrant,   related   to 

flower  type) — Figs,  apples,  raisins,  prunes, 
purging  cassia,  many  so-called  berries  as 
strawberry,  raspberry,  etc. 

3.  Lemon  Peel  Type  (fragrant  and  aromatic) — Bit- 

ter orange  peel,  sweet  orange  peeel,  citron 
peel,  lemon  peel,  melissa  when  fresh. 

4.  Matricaria  or  Chamomille  Type  (fragrant,  related 

to  tea  type,  characteristic) — Matricaria, 
chamomille,  brayera,  anthemis,  matico,  laven- 
dula,  achillea. 

5.  Orange  Blossom,  Rose  or  Flower  Type  (very  frag- 

rant, related  to  honey  type) — Orange  blos- 
soms, apple  blossoms,  rose,  iris  flor.  (faint), 
hsematoxylon  (very  faint),  sambucus  flow- 
ers, senna,  Scutellaria,  marrubium,  vanilla, 
spigelia,  castanea,  carthamus,  benzoin  (Siam), 
storax  (faint). 


24  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

6.  Wintergreen  Type  (very  fragrant,  related  to  flower 

type) — Gaultheria,  birch,  marrubium. 

7.  Tea  or  Hay  Type  (somewhat  fragrant,  character- 

istic)— Tea,  hamameHs,  eupatorium,  laven- 
dula,  matico,  senna,  brayera,  eriodictyon,  ery- 
throxylon,  matico,  pilocarpus  and  other 
leaves,  pyrethrum  flowers,  Pulsatilla,  uva 
ursi. 

8.  Chicory  Type   (fragrant  and  somewhat  aromatic) 

— Roasted  chicory,  phytolacca  fruit. 

B.     indifferent  odors. 

1.  Bitter  Almond  Type   (aromatic,  somewhat  pleas- 

ant)— Bitter  almond,  wild  cherry  bark,  apple 
seeds,  quince  seeds  and  other  seeds  containing 
hydrocyanic  acid. 

2.  Caraway    Type    (aromatic,    pleasant   to    many)  — 

Caraway,  coriander,  fennel. 

3.  Camphor  Type   (characteristic,  usually  considered 

disagreeable,  terebinthine  odor) — Calamus, 
chenopodium,  camphor,  grindelia,  eucalyptus, 
juniperus,  rosemary,  sabina,  salvia,  santonica, 
serpentaria,  tanacetum,  thuja. 

4.  Bean  Type    (bland,   not   pleasant) — Castor   beans 

and  croton  beans  when  fresh,  calabar  beans, 
beans. 

5.  Seaweed  Type  (briny  odor,  not  agreeable) — Char- 

acteristic of  all  seaweeds,  as  Irish  moss. 

6.  Soil  Type  (faintly  musty  odor) — Very  marked  in 

sarsaparilla,  noticeable  in  nearly  all  roots, 
rhizomes,  tubers  and  most  barks,  especially 
when  moist. 

7.  Sumbul  Type    (musk-like,   heavy,  disagreeable  to 

many) — Sumbul,  santalum  album  (faint). 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  25 

8.  Jalapa  Type  (smoky,  due  to  smoke  in  drying)  — 

Jalapa  and  other  drugs  dried  over  a  flame  and 
over  open  fireplaces,  as  Russian  rhubarb. 

9.  Tannin  Type  (a  faint  odor  resembHng  the  jalapa 

type,  noticeable  in  substances  rich  in  tannin) 
Podophyllum,  rheum,  rumex,  rhatany,  galla, 
lappa,  chirata,  hydrastis,  frasera. 

DISAGREEABLE  ODORS. 

1.  Cannabis    Indica   Type    (variously   designated    as 

heavy,  nauseous,  stupefying  and  suffocating; 
increased  by  moisture) — Absinthium,  apocy- 
num,  asclepias,  aspidium  (when  old),  bella- 
donna leaves,  calendula,  chelidonium,  cimici- 
fuga  when  moist,  cypripedium,  digitalis 
leaves,  dulcamara,  ergot  (when  old),  gelsem- 
ium,  hellebore,  hyoscyamus,  Indian  hemp, 
American  hemp,  ipecac,  lactucarium,  lobelia, 
opium,  sabadilla,  scoparius,  senega  (when 
old),  stillingia,  stramonium  leaves  and  seeds, 
strophantus,  tobacco. 

2.  Rancid  odor  (due  to  the  decomposition  of  fats  and 

oils) — Castor  beans  and  croton  beans  (when 
old),  cocculus  Indicus,  delphinium,  staphis- 
agria,  ergot  and  senega  (when  old). 

3.  Garlic   or   Alliaceous   Type    (sulphurous   odor)  — 

Asafoetida,  garlic,  onions,  galbanum,  mus- 
tard (when  moist). 

4.  Conium  Type  (mouse  odor) — Conium  when  moist- 

ened with  potassium  hydrate  or  other  alkaline 
solution. 

5.  Melissa   Type    (ant   odor) — Dried   melissa,   when 

briskly  crushed. 


26 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


6.  Valerian  Type   (very  characteristic,  develops  with 

age) — Valerian,  viburnum  prunifolium,  lupu- 
lin,  humulus. 

7.  Taraxacum  Type  (cow  odor,  characteristic) — Ca- 

lumba,  Phytolacca  root,  taraxacum,  pyreth- 
rum  root,  inula,  althaea,  aconite,  sympethum, 
bryonia. 

The  following-  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  drugs  which  are  prac- 
tically odorless.  Few  substances  are  entirely  odorless,  but  in  the 
drugs  enumerated  the  odors  are  not  sufficiently  marked  to  be  di- 
agnostic, especially  since  we  have  no  means  of  comparing  or 
measuring  them.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  there  are  many  more 
drugs  which  are  practically  odorless  than  those  which  are  taste- 
less, due  to  the  fact  that  taste-sensations  are  more  readily  detected 
and  compared. 

Odorless  or  nearly  Odorless  Drugs. 


1.  Areca    (odor  faintly  fra- 

grant). 

2.  Aconite      root       (faintly 

horseradish-like    when 
fresh  or  moistened). 

3.  Aspidosperma   (faintly 

aromatic). 

4.  Belladonna  root. 

5.  Berberis. 

6.  Br3^onia  (resembling  tar- 

axacum). 

7.  Calumba  (resembling  tar- 

axacum). 

8.  Carbo  animalis. 

9.  Carbo  vegetabilis. 

10.  Caulophyllum. 

11.  Cetraria. 


12.  Chamaelirium. 

13.  Chimaphila. 

14.  Chirata. 

15.  Cichorium  (not  roasted). 

16.  Cinchona     (faintly     aro- 

matic). 

17.  Colchicum    (seed    and 

corm). 

18.  Colocynth. 

19.  Canvallaria. 
Cornus. 
Dextrin. 
Frangula. 
Geranium. 

Glycyrrhiza    (faint   pecu- 
liar odor). 


20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 
24. 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


27 


25.  Gossypium. 

26.  Granatum  bark. 

27.  Hydrangea      (resembling 

taraxacum, 

28.  Hyoscyamus  seeds. 

29.  Ignatia  beans. 

30.  Kamala. 

31.  Leptandra. 

32.  Linum. 

33.  Lycopodium. 

34.  JMagnolia. 

35.  Menispermiim. 

36.  Mezerion. 

37.  Nux  vomica. 

38.  Pareira. 

39.  Physostigma    (bean-like). 

40.  Phytolacca  root  (like  tar- 

axacum). 

41.  Populus. 

42.  Prinos. 

43.  Quassia. 


(causes     sneez- 


44.  Quercus. 

45.  Ouillaia 

ing:)- 
Rhamnus  purshiana, 
Rhus  glabra  fruit. 
Rhus  toxicodendron 

49.  Rubus. 

50.  Salix. 
Sanguinaria. 
Santalum  rubrum. 
Sarsaparilla     (soil 

marked). 

54.  Sassafras  pith. 

55.  Scilla. 

56.  Sinapis    (when  dry 

aceous  when  moist) . 
Triticum  repens. 
Veratrum  viride. 
Viburnum  opulus. 
Xanthoxvlum. 


46. 

47. 
48. 


51- 

52. 
53- 


odor. 


alli- 


57- 
58. 

59- 
60. 


Upon  careful  consideration  the  student  will  find  that  many 
odors  are  very  difficult  of  classification.  The  separation  into  aro- 
matic and  fragrant  will  depend  largely  upon  judgment ;  likewise 
the  separation  into  agreeable,  indifferent  and  disagreeable.  The 
taraxacum  type  is  not  recognized  by  several  authors — that  is,  the 
drugs  under  that  type  are  given  as  odorless,  which  certainly  is 
not  the  case,  as  a  careful  test  will  prove.  It  must,  however,  be 
remembered  that  there  are  a  great  variety  of  factors  which  will 
modify  the  odor  of  drugs,  as  has  already  been  indicated,  and  as 
will  be  explained  more  fully  in  subsequent  chapters. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  odor  of  the  whole  drug 
may  differ  qualitatively  as  well  as  quantitatively  from  that  of  the 


28  PowDiiRED  Vegetable  Drugs. 

crushed,  bruised  or  powdered  drug.  The  whole  drug  may  have 
a  very  decided  characteristic  odor,  which  is  very  much  masked 
or  obscured,  due  to  other  odors  Hberated  by  the  crushing  process. 
For  example,  well-dried,  uncrushed  or  only  slightly  bruised  me- 
lissa  has  a  fragrant,  lemon-like  odor;  when  thoroughly  crushed, 
the  fragrancy  is  almost  entirely  obscured  by  a  very  decided  disa- 
greeable ant  odor.  Uncrushed  Mentha  viridis  has  a  very  fra- 
grant odor,  resembling  that  of  the  leaves  of  garden  sweet  Mary ; 
upon  crushing  there  is  developed  an  odor  resembling  catmint. 
Crude  sabina  has  the  terbinthine  odor  characteristic  of  conifers ; 
upon  thoroughly  crushing  there  is  liberated  a  peculiar  and  very 
disagreeable  odor.  The  same  is  true  of  worm  seed  (santonica) 
and  some  other  drugs.  In  consideration  of  these  facts  it  is  ad- 
visable to  test  the  odor  of  the  drug  before  it  is  crushed  or  pow- 
dered as  well  as  afterward.  The  odor  of  powdered  drugs  weak- 
ens very  rapidly.  The  great  surface  area  exposed  permits  the 
volatile  odoriferous  substances  to  escape  very  quickly.  Even 
quite  fresh  powders  of  drugs  which  have  well  marked  odors  have 
only  a  faint  or  barely  appreciable  odor.  In  the  case  of  coarse 
and  medium  powders  the  odor  may  readily  be  accentuated  by 
crushing  a  pinch  of  the  powder  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  or  in  a 
small  mortar,  as  already  indicated. 

Since  the  olfactory  apparatus  is  easily  fatigued,  it  is  not  ad- 
visable to  test  the  odor  of  many  drugs  in  rapid  succession.  Thor- 
oughly testing  from  four  to  eight  drugs  in  the  course  of  one  hour 
will  be  sufficient.  The  intervals  should  be  long  enough  to  enable 
the  olfactory  nerves  to  recover  entirely  from  each  stimulus. 

IV.     Taste  and  Standards  of  Taste. 

A  substance  to  be  tasted  must  be'in  solution  and  must  come 
in  contact  with  the  gustatory  nerve  endings.  We  are  capable  of 
recognizing  four  basic  and  distinctive  tastes,  namely — sweet,  acid, 
salt  and  bitter.     The  nerve  endings  which  give  rise  to  these  dif- 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  29 

fereiit  tastes  differ  structurally  and  occupy  different  positions  in 
tongue  and  oral  cavity.  Bitter  substances  produce  the  most 
marked  effect  when  placed  on  the  base  of  the  tongue ;  acids  when 
placed  at  the  lateral  edges  of  the  tongue.  Any  part  of  the  tongue 
will,  however,  appreciate  any  sapid  substance.  The  intensity  of 
the  taste  is  proportional  to  the  strength  of  the  solution  and  to  the 
gustatory  surface  acted  upon.  The  sensation  requires  some  time 
to  develop  and  endures  as  long  as  any  of  the  sapid  substance  re- 
mains. Various  stimuli  will  cause  sensations  of  taste,  as  electrical 
currents  and  contact  stimuli.  Temperature  greatly  modifies  this 
sense.  \>ry  hot  or  very  cold  substances  cannot  be  tasted  ;  a  tem- 
perature of  about  40  degrees  C.  is  the  most  favorable.  Pungent 
substances,  as  pepper,  alcohol,  etc.,  greatly  obscure  any  gustatory 
sensations  which  may  be  present  at  the  time. 

The  gustatory  nerves  are  not  quickly  fatigued,  nor  is  their 
sensitiveness  readily  impaired  or  obscured.  It  is  difficult  to  cover 
one  taste  by  another,  as  is  well  known  by  those  who  are  in  search 
for  vehicles  or  menstrua  for  disguising  the  taste  of  disagreeable 
medicines.  Quinine  is  persistently  bitter,  no  matter  what  is  added 
to  it.  Salt  is  appreciated  as  long  and  as  often  as  it  may  be  applied 
to  the  tongue.  Applying  salt  and  sugar  at  the  same  time,  both 
tastes  are  recognized.  A  very  decided  taste  may,  however,  en- 
tirely obscure  another  faint  taste. 

There  are  a  number  of  marked  and  distinctive  sensations 
usually  recognized  and  designated  as  tastes  which  are  purely  tac- 
tile sensations  and  are  not  due  to  the  stimulation  of  the  gustatory 
nerves.  The  most  important  of  these  are  the  so-called  pungent, 
hot  or  burning  tastes  of  the  spices  ;  the  astringent  taste  of  tannin- 
bearing  drugs.  Some  authors  also  speak  of  mucilaginous,  gritty, 
sandy  and  cooling  tastes.  All  of  these  are  merely  tactile  sensa- 
tions of  the  tongue  and  mouth.  Pepper,  cinnamon,  allspice,  al- 
cohol, garlic,  onions,  horseradish  are  tasteless  as  far  as  the  pun- 
gency is  concerned. 

Aromatic  taste  is  also  a  misnomer.     Bv  this  term  is  meant  an 


30  Pow'DKRED  Vegetable  Drugs. 

odor  associated  with  a  taste  or  tactile  sensation.  For  instance,  in 
eating  an  apple  we  appreciate  a  sweet  taste,  an  acid  taste  and  an 
odor.  In  the  case  of  cinnamon  there  is  a  pungent  tactile  sensa- 
tion, a  sweetish  taste  and  an  aromatic  odor.  In  the  case  of  wine 
and  many  other  alcoholic  drinks  there  is  a  pungent  tactile  sensa- 
tion, a  sweet  taste,  an  acid  taste  and  an  odor.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  aromatic  tastes  may  be  divided  into  true  aromatic,  hav- 
ing a  true  taste  combined  with  an  odor;  pseudo-aromatic,  hav- 
ing a  tactile  sensation  usually  recognized  as  a  taste,  combined 
with  an  odor ;  and  mixed  aromatic,  having  a  tactile  sensation  and 
a  taste  combined  with  an  odor.  It  is  generally  understood  that 
the  odors  associated  with  aromatic  tastes  are  pleasant.  Such 
terms  as  aroma,  flavor  and  bouquet  are  employed  in  speaking  of 
the  aromatic  tastes  of  wines  and  other  drinks,  soups,  perfumes, 
etc.  Many  of  the  finer  aromas  of  wines,  brandy,  whisky  and  other 
substances  are  little  understood ;  they  are  doubtless  due  to  subtle 
fermentative  and  chemical  changes.    . 

As  already  indicated,  tastes  do  not  develop  promptly.  In 
the  case  of  some  drugs  considerable  time  elapses  before  the  sen- 
sation is  well  developed.  In  a  few  instances  the  student  will  con- 
clude that  the  drug  is  tasteless,  but  after  a  time  a  taste  or  tactile 
sensation  will  develop,  which  becomes  more  and  more  pro- 
nounced, as,  for  example,  the  pungency  of  croton  seed.  This  is 
doubtless  due  to  the  slow  solubility  of  the  sapid  or  pungent  sub- 
stance. In  some  drugs  the  taste  is  obscured  by  a  benumbing 
eflfect,  as  in  aconite. 

In  testing  the  taste  of  drugs  it  is  advised  not  to  use  more 
material  than  is  necessary.  This  precaution  against  large  doses 
and  swallowing  will  serve  as  a  safeguard  against  annoying  or 
even  dangerous  if  not  fatal  symptoms  from  an  overdose  of  very 
powerful  drugs,  as  aconite,  hyoscyamus,  belladonna,  strophantus 
and  others.  The  promiscuous  tasting  and  swallowing  of  drug 
particles,  though  they  are  comparatively  harmless,  will  often  de- 
velop annoying  dyspeptic  symptoms.     It  should  also  be  remem- 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders,  31 

bered  that  some  individuals  are  very  sensative  to  the  effects  of 
certain  drugs.  Minute  doses  of  nutmeg,  mace  and  aconite  have 
been  known  to  produce  alarming  nervous  symptoms. 

If  the  drug  is  comparatively  harmless,  there  should  be  no 
hesitancy  about  tasting  a  larger  quantity  if  necessary  to  develop 
a  decided  sensation.  The  student  will  find  that  one  grain  is  an 
average  dose  of  the  powerful  drugs,  as  aconite,  belladonna,  digi- 
talic,  hyoscyamus,  nux  vomica,  tobacco,  strophantus  and  others ;  if 
this  is  kept  in  mind,  there  need  be  no  danger  of  an  overdose,  es- 
pecially if  little  or  none  of  it  is  swallowed. 

As  soon  as  the  taste  is  fully  developed  the  mouth  should  be 
well  rinsed  with  pure  water  in  order  to  remove  powder  particles 
and  the  taste  preparatory  to  testing  the  next.  Some  taste  sensa- 
tions (bitter),  tactile  sensations  (pungency)  and  benumbing  ef- 
fects are  quite  persistent  and  not  easily  removed ;  but  several 
rinsings  with  lukewarm  water  will  usually  be  sufficient. 

While  tasting  a  powder  the  student  should  also  note  concomi- 
tant effects,  as  coloration  of  saliva,  frothiness  of  saliva,  benumb- 
ing effects  upon  tongue  and  pharynx,  mucilaginous  condition, 
grittiness,  etc.  The  student  should  make  the  most  use  possible 
of  tongue,  teeth  and  lips  when  occasion  demands  it. 

The  following  classification  of  true  tastes,  so-called  aromatic 
tastes  and  tactile  sensations  which  are  generally  or  occasionally 
designated  as  taste  sensations  will  serve  as  a  review  of  the  subject. 

Tastes  of  Vegetable  Drugs. 

A.      PURE  TASTE  SENSATIONS. 

I.     Pleasant  or  agreeable. 

1.  Sweet  (pleasant  in  all  degreees  of  concentration) 

— Sugar. 

2.  Salty,  Saline  (agreeable  in  weak  solutions;    disa- 

greeable in  strong  solutions) — Salt. 


32  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

3.     Acid,   Acidulous,   Sour    (agreeable  in  weak   solu- 
tions;    disagreeable    in    strong    solutions)  — 
Vinegar. 
II.     Disagreeable. 

I.     Bitter   (disagreeable  in  all  degrees  of  solution)  — 
Quinine. 

B.  AROMATIC  TASTE  SENSATIONS    (ASSOCIATIONS   OF   TRUE  TASTES 

AND  TACTILE   SENSATIONS   WITH   PLEASANT  ODORS). 

I.  True  Aromatic  Sensations  (a  true  taste  sensation,  usually 
acid  or  sweet,  associated  with  an  agreeable  odor)  — 
Many  fruits,  candies. 

II.     Pseudo-Aromatic  Sensations  (tactile  sensation  associated 

w^ith  an  agreeable  odor) — Cloves. 
III.     Mixed  Aromatic  Sensations    (true  taste   sensations  and 
tactile   sensations   associated   with   agreeable   odors)  — 
Some  fruits,  cinnamon. 

C.  TACTILE  SENSATIONS  DESIGNATED  AS  TASTE   SENSATIONS. 

I.  Pungent,  Acrid,  Hot,  Sharp,  Biting,  Burning  (quite  gen- 
erally designated  as  taste  sensations ;  found  with  many 
drugs  and  all  of  the  spices) — Pepper. 
11.  Astringent,  "Puckery"  (usually  designated  as  tastes,  and 
found  in  many  drugs,  usually  due  to  tannin ;  often  as- 
sociated with  a  bitter  or  acrid  taste) — Alum,  green  per- 
simmons. 

III.  Mucilaginous  (quite  generally  designated  as  a  taste  sen- 

sation)— Slippery  elm  bark. 

IV.  Cooling,  Refreshing  (more  generally  spoken  of  as  "sen- 

sations" ;  often  associated  with  acid  tastes  and  pun- 
gently  aromatic  drugs,  as  the  mints) — Cool  aerated 
water. 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  33 

V.     Sticky,  Gummy  (quite  generally  designated  as  "feels")  — 
Due  to  the  presence  of  gums,  resins  and  wax. 
VI.     Sandy,  Gritty   (generally  designated  as   feels) — Due  to 
the  presence  of  sand  particles,  stone  cells  (the  rind  of 
the  pear)  and  other  minute  hard  particles. 

Some  taste  sensations  are  not  primarily  due  to  sapid  sub- 
stances occurring  in  the  drug.  For  example,  the  slightly  sweet 
taste  of  drugs  and  other  substances  rich  in  starch  is  due  to  the 
action  of  ptyalin  (the  ferment  of  saliva),  which  has  the  power  of 
converting  starch  into  sugar.  As  with  odor,  it  is  not  advisable 
to  taste  many  drugs  in  rapid  succession;  not  that  the  gustatory 
nerves  are  easily  fatigued,  but  because  one  taste  sensation  should 
be  entirely  removed  before  the  second  drug  is  tasted.  The  so- 
called  pungent  tastes  are  especially  difficult  to  get  rid  of,  as,  for 
instance,  those  of  croton  seeds,  sabadilla  and  mezerium.  Some 
sapid  substances  require  time  to  enter  into  solution ;  hence  in 
hasty  work  two  or  three  drugs  might  be  tested  as  to  taste  before 
the  sensation  of  the  first  drug  has  had  time  to  develop.  With 
some  persons  reflex  dyspeptic  symptoms  develop  after  tasting  five 
or  six  drugs  in  comparatively  rapid  succession.  More  or  less 
painful  irritation  of  lips,  mouth  and  tongue  may  also  follow  from 
the  repeated  tasting  of  drugs. 

The  following  is  a  grouping  of  the  more  common  vegetable 
drugs  according  to  taste.  The  student  must  keep  clearly  in  mind 
that  the  taste  of  drugs  varies  quantitatively  and  qualitatively  with 
the  change  in  the  chemical  constituency  of  the  sapid  substances. 

In  rhis  classification  astringency  and  pungency  are  treated  as 
taste  sensations,  though,  as  already  stated,  they  are  tactile  sensa- 
tions. Odors  should  be  kept  distinct  from  tastes  ;  hence  aromatic 
tastes  is  a  misnomer  which  should  be  avoided.  Mucilaginous 
state,  grittiness,  cooling  sensations,  etc.,  must  be  considered  as 
pure  tactile  sensations.  Many  of  the  mixed  tastes  cannot  be  def- 
initely described. 


34  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

The  following  is  a  tabulation  of  the  simple  tastes  (inclusive 
of  astringency  and  pungency)  and  mixed  tastes  as  they  occur  in 
the  more  common  dried  vegetable  drugs  : 

I.     Simple  tastes. 

1.  Sweet. 

2.  Saline. 

3.  Acid. 

4.  Bitter. 

5.  Astringent. 

6.  Pungent. 

11.     Mixed  Tastes. 

1.  Sweet-acid. 

2.  Sweet-bitter. 

3.  Sweet-acid-pungent. 

4.  Sweet-bitter-pungent. 

5.  Sweet-pungent-astringent. 

6.  Sweet-bitter-astringent. 

7.  Sweet-bitter-astringent-pungent. 

8.  Sweet-pungent. 

9.  Saline-bitter. 

10.  Bitter-pungent. 

1 1 .  Bitter-astringent. 

12.  Bitter-pungent-astringent. 

13.  Pungent-astringent. 

Drugs  with  Simple  Tastes. 

I.  Sweet'^' — Althsea,  cassia  fistula  (pulp),  cereal  coffee,  dex- 
trin, taraxacum  (very  faint),  triticum  repens,  starches. 
II.  Saline — Chondrus  crispus.  A  pure  saline  taste  is  rare. 
Even  in  chondrus  the  saline  taste  is  associated  with  a 
bitter  taste.  Many  leaves  and  flowers  have  a  more  or 
less  decided  saline  taste. 


*Substances  rich  in  starch  have  a  sweetish  taste,  due  to  the  action  of 
ptyalin,  which  converts  starch  into  sugar. 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders.  ,55 

III.  Acid — Rhus  glabra,  vanilla. 

IV.  Bitter — Absinthium,  angustura,  anthemis,  apocynum,  as- 

pidosperma,  aurantium  flor.  (slightly  pungent),  ber- 
beris,  bryonia,  carthamus  (saliva  yellow),  cetraria  (?), 
chamaelirium,  chirata,  cichorium,  cocculus,  colo- 
cynth,  conium,  crocus  (saliva  yellow),  digitalis,  ery- 
throxylon,  gelsemium,  hyrastis,  ignatia,  lactuca,  laven- 
dula,  lupulin,  matricaria,  marrubium  (also  saline), 
menispernum,  nux  vomica,  pareira,  populus,  quassia, 
rhamnus  purshiana,  scoparius,  staphisagria,  stramoni- 
um leaves  and  seeds,  strophantus,  sumbul,  thuja,  val- 
erian. 

V.     Astringent — Areca,  castanea,  galla,  gaultheria,  geranium 
krameria,  santalum  rubrum. 

VI.  Pungent — Cantharides  (animal  drug),  capsicum,  carda- 
mom, caryophyllus,  coriander,  coto  bark  (somewhat 
bitter),  croton  seeds,  cubeba,  hedeoma,  lobelia,  mace, 
mentha,  methysticum,  mezerion,  myrica,  pimenta,  piper, 
sinapis,  zingiber. 

Drugs  with  Mixed  Tastes. 

I.     Sweet- Acid — Vanilla  (?). 

II.     Sweet-Bitter — Amygdala,    dulcamara,    frasera,    frangula, 
gentian,  lappa,  Scutellaria,  spigelia,  taraxacum  (  ?) . 

III.  Sweet-Acid-Pungent — Illicium. 

IV.  Sweet-Bitter-Pungent — Belladonna    root,    caulophyllum, 

colchicum  corm,  convallaria,  cypripedium,  euonymus, 
juniper  berries,  hellebore,  podophyllum. 

V.     Sweet-Bitter-Astringent    —    Cichorium    (roasted),    rosa 
centifolia. 

VI.     Sweet-Bitter-Pungent-Astringent — Aspidium. 

VII.  Sweet-Pungent — Aconite,  anisum,  carum,  cinnamon, 
foeniculum,  glycyrrhiza,  hydrangea,  jalapa,  phytolacca 
fruit  and  root,  senega. 


36  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

VIII.     Sweet-Pungent-Astringent — Cinnamon    (Saigon),   sassa- 
fras bark. 
IX.     Saline-Bitter — Marrubium    and   some    other   leaves    and 
flowers. 

X.  Bitter-Pungent — Arnica,  asarum,  asclepias,  aurantium 
flowers  and  peel,  belladonna  leaves,  brayera,  calamus, 
canella,  cascarilla,  chenopodium,  colchicum  seed,  coto 
bark,  curcuma,  delphinium,  eucalyptus,  grindelia,  hyo- 
scyamus  leaves  and  seeds,  iris  flor.,  juglans,  leptandra, 
matico,    pilocarpus,    piscidia,    pyrethrum    flowers    and 

V  root,  rosemary,  sabadilla,  sanguinaria,  santonica,  scilla, 

serpentaria,  stillingia,  tobacco,  tanacetum,  veratrum 
viride,  xanthoxylum. 

XI.  Bitter-Pungent-Astringent — Eucalyptus,  myrica,  myris- 
tica,  tanacetum. 
XII.  Bitter-Astringent — Caffea,  chimaphila,  cinchona,  cornus, 
eupatorium,  granatum  bark,  guarana,  humulus,  me- 
lissa,  prinos,  prunus  virg.,  quercus,  rheum,  rubus, 
rumex,  salix,  thea,  theobroma,  viburnum  op.  and  prun. 
XIII.  Pungent-Astringent — Gossypium,  quillaia,  rhus  toxico- 
dendron. 

The   following   drugs   are  practically   tasteless    when  thor- 
oughly dried : 

1.  Carbo  animalis  (entirely  tasteless). 

2.  Carbo  ligni  (entirely  tasteless). 

3.  Cetraria  (slightly  bitter). 

4.  Cydonium  (sweetish  and  very  mucilaginous). 

5.  Erythroxylon   (somewhat    pungent    and    benumb- 

ing). 

6.  Guaiacum  (somewhat  pungent). 

7.  Kamala  (entirely  tasteless). 

8.  Linum  (bitterish  and  mucilaginous). 


Examination  of  Vegetable  Powders,  .37 

9.  Lycopodium  (entirely  tasteless). 

10.  Physostigma  (entirely  tasteless). 

11.  Santalum  rub.  (entirely  tasteless). 

12.  Sassafras  pith  (mucilaginous). 

13.  Taraxacum  (practically  tasteless  when  old). 


38  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


CHAPTER  11. 

Causes  Modifying^  the  Characteristics  of  Vegetable  Powders. 

The  student,  as  well  as  the  practicnig  pharmacist,  will  soon 
learn  that  the  different  drug  samples  which  come  under  his  ob- 
servation vary  greatly  as  to  the  gross  characteristics.  In  many 
instances  the  deviations  from  the  normal  or  type  specimen  are 
so  great  that  the  identity  of  the  drug  is  not  readily  recognized. 
It  is,  therefore,  of  prime  importance  to  be  cognizant  of  the  possi- 
ble variations  in  the  gross  characters  which  a  drug  may  undergo 
before  it  comes  into  the  hands  of  the  student  or  pharmacist.  It 
is  necessary  to  enter  into  a  consideration  of  those  factors  or  in- 
flueilces  which  are  capable  of  modifying  vegetable  drugs,  as  time 
and  manner  of  collecting,  curing,  packing,  shipping  and  storing; 
the  influences  of  climatic  conditions,  of  cultiyation,  the  presence 
of  parasites,  etc.  If  these  factors  are  kept  in  mind,  the  student 
will  have  little  difficulty  in  determining  whether  or  not  a  given 
drug  is  of  fair  quality. 

It  must  also  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  familiarity  with  the 
normal  drug  is  necessary  in  order  to  appreciate  the  deviations 
from  the  normal.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  normal  histology 
of  a  drug  is  necessary  to  recognize  the  presence  of  attacking 
hyphal  fungi,  adulterants  of  powdered  drugs,  etc.  Naturally  the 
factors  which  modify  the  characteristics  of  crude  vegetable  drugs 
also  modify  the  powders  made  therefrom. 

I.     Normal  Varl\tions. 

By  normal  variation  is  meant  such  differences  in  the  charac- 
teristics of  different  samples  or  specimens  of  the  same  vegetable 


Characteristics  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.         39 

drug  as  are  the  result  of  normal,  necessary  or  unavoidable  influ- 
ences due  to  time,  place  and  environment.  X'ariations  in  size 
and  form  of  crude  drugs  are  not  noticeable  in  the  powdered  state, 
and  if  the  quality  is  unaltered  there  is  no  reason  why  small, 
broken  and  otherwise  altered  crude  drugs  should  not  be  used  in 
the  powdered  form. 

There  is,  also,  considerable  variation  in  the  color  of  different 
specimens.  Younger  parts  are  likely  to  assume  a  darker  color 
and  to  shrink  more  upon  drying.  There  are  unavoidable  varia- 
tions in  the  manner  of  curing,  packing  and  storing  which  will 
cause  slight  differences  in  the  color  and  other  characteristics  of 
the  drug.  It  would  be  an  endless  task  to  enumerate  all  of  the 
possible  normal  variations  in  form,  size,  color,  odor  and  taste. 
We  can  only  call  the  student's  attention  to  their  existence,  and 
urge  upon  him  the  necessity  of  a  careful  study  of  the  drug  in  or- 
der that  he  may  distinguish  these  slight  normal  variations  from 
those  of  a  more  serious  nature  to  be  mentioned  later. 

The  student  must  also  keep  in  mind  the  manner  in  which  the 
drug  is  prepared  for  the  market.  Some  roots  and  rhizomes,  as 
sarsaparilla,  curcuma,  jalapa,  are  exposed  to  high  temperatures, 
which  converts  some  of  the  starch  into  paste  and  causes  the  drug 
to  become  glossy,  brittle  and  darker  in  color.  The  smoky  odor 
of  jalapa  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  tubers  are  dried  over  an  open 
fire.  Some  rhizomes,  roots  and  barks  are  partially  or  wholly 
peeled.  All  of  these  differences  in  crude  drugs  modify  more  or 
less  the  appearance  of  the  powder,  and  this  should  be  kept  in  mind 
in  examining  powders  macroscopically  as  well  as  microscopically. 

II.     Parasites. 

One  of  the  troubles  of  the  practicing  pharmacist  is  caused  by 
the  various  vegetable  and  animal  pests  which  infest  vegetable 
drugs.  Some  of  these  parasites  attack  the  plants  before  the  drug 
is  collected,  but  the  majority  of  them  work  their  destructive  in- 


40  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

fluences  after  the  drug  has  been  dried.  Their  presence  greatly 
modifies  the  appearance  and  value  of  drugs;  it  is,  therefore,  of 
great  importance  to  be  able  to  recognize  the  parasites  or  the  ef- 
fects they  produce.  Suggestions  on  the  methods  employed  to  de- 
stroy them  or  to  prevent  their  occurrence  will  be  valuable. 

Strictly  speaking,  "parasites"  is  a  misnomer,  since  the  pests 
referred  to  attack  dead  tissues,  and  are,  hence,  saprophytic  in  their 
habits  instead  of  parasitic;  but  since  they  are  quite  universally 
designated  as  parasites  we  shall  retain  that  term  in  its  older, 
though  inaccurate  application. 

I.     the  vegetable  parasites. 

The  vegetable  parasites  which  are  found  in  and  upon  the 
various  vegetable  drugs  belong  to  the  lower  forms  of  plant  life 
as  bacteria,  hyhpal  fungi  and  lichens.  Some  are  present  before 
the  drug  is  collected,  as  the  lichens,  less  rarely  also  the  hyphal 
fungi.  All  external  plant  parts  or  tissues  are  exposed  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  multitude  of  lower  organisms,  both  plant  and  animal, 
and  many  of  these  are  normally  present.  For  instance,  a  close 
microscopical  examination  of  the  outer  layers  of  barks,  the  epi- 
dermis of  flowers,  leaves,  roots  and  rhizomes  will  reveal  the  pres- 
ence of  bacteria,  insect  remnants,  low  forms  of  alg?e,  besides  other 
foreign  substances  which  are  carried  to  the  plants  by  air  and 
water  currents,  and  are,  therefore,  normally  and  unavoidably 
present  and  not  an  indication  of  a  poor  quality  or  an  adulteration 
of  the  drug. 

a.     Bacteria. 

Bacteria  are  practically  omnipresent.  Owing  to  their  mi- 
nuteness they  are  transported  from  place  to  place  by  the  slight- 
est air  currents.  They  are  circulated  in  the  soil  by  the  currents 
caused  by  rains  and  the  evaporation  of  moisture.  They  cling  to 
all  exposed  plant  parts.     In  spite  of  their  omnipresence  they  prob- 


Characteristics  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.         41 

ably  do  not  develop  in  or  upon  dry  drugs  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
produce  any  material  change. 

Bacteria  are  normally  present  in  large  numbers  in  some  vege- 
table substances,  as  the  seeds  of  Abrus  precatorius,  the  leaves  of 
Drosera  and  NepeniJuis  and  the  root  tubercles  of  leguminous 
plants.  They  are  abnormally  present  in  many  drugs.  For  in- 
stance, gum  opium  is  mixed  with  bacteria  of  the  air,  from  the 
often  dirty  hands  and  instruments  of  the  collectors.  It  is  true 
many  if  not  all,  of  these  bacteria  are  harmless  or  are  dead,  but 
some  may  still  be  viable  and  harmful  (pathogenic),  hence  caution 
is  advised  in  tasting  some  drugs.  Some  drug-yielding  plants  are 
grown  in  typhoid  and  malarial  districts,  and  the  imperfectly 
cleaned  roots  and  rhizomes  may  thus  serve  as  disseminators  of 
disease.  Though  this  may  happen  only  very  rarely,  yet  it  is 
worthy  of  consideration,  especially  in  handling  and  examining 
comparatively  fresh  drugs.  Barks  collected  in  the  vicinity  of 
thickly  populated  areas  are  apt  to  bear  some  disease  germs. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  some 
very  important  fermentative  changes  which  take  place  in  drugs 
during  the  various  stages  of  curing  are,  in  all  probability,  induced 
by  bacteria.  German  investigators  have  shown  that  the  flavor  of 
tobacco  is  dependent  upon  the  species  of  bacterium  which  causes 
the  fermentative  changes  during  the  "sweating  process."  Fu- 
ture investigations  may  go  to  prove  that  the  deterioration  of 
stored  drugs  is  due  to  the  presence  of  bacteria  which  initiate  the 
destructive  chemical  changes  of  alkaloids  and  other  active  con- 
stituents. 

Bacteria  frequently  cause  disease  and  decay  of  fresh  vege- 
table substances,  as,  for  instance,  pear  blight,  apple  blight,  carna- 
tion blight,  rotting  of  fleshy  fruits,  of  tubers,  bulbs  and  fleshy 
roots ;  but  since  only  few  drugs  are  used  in  the  fresh  state,  these 
destructive  bacteria  concern  the  pharmacist  but  little. 


42  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

b.     HypJial  Fungi. 

Hyphal  fungi  are  higher  in  the  scale  of  evokition  than  bac- 
teria, and  are  designated  hyphal  because,  no  matter  how  highly 
organized  they  may  be,  they  consist  of  a  more  or  less  densely 
interwoven  network  of  usually  branching  elongated  (filamentous) 
cells  known  as  hyphse.  There  are  a  great  many  species,  differing 
widely  as  to  gross  characteristics.  The  student  is  supposed  to  be 
familiar  with  their  general  morphology  and  physiology. 

A  few  drugs  are  derived  from  this  group  of  plants,  of  which 
by  far  the  most  important  are  Clavipes  pupurca  (ergot)  and 
Ustilago  Alaydis  (corn  smut).  Ergot  is  a  fungus  which  attacks 
the  undeveloped  ovaries  of  rye,  wheat  and  other  cereals,  causing 
an  abnormal  growth  of  the  ovary.  Corn  smut  attacks  the  devel- 
oping ovaries  of  Indian  corn.  Polyporus  fouieiitarius  (Zunder, 
Feuerschwamm)  was  formerly  employed  for  checking  hemor- 
rhage. Impregnated  with  a  solution  of  salpeter  it  is  still  exten- 
sively employed  in  certain  localities  for  lighting  fires,  aided  by 
flint  and  steel.  Lycoperdoii  giganteiun  (Surgeon's  fungus)  is 
still  a  popular  remed}^  in  certain  countries  for  checking  hem- 
orrhage. 

In  looking  over  a  collection  of  leaves  and  herbs  there  will  be 
some  leaves  and  herbaceous  stems  with  circumscribed  areas  of  a 
dark  or  brown  color,  indicating  the  presence  of  a  blight  fungus 
which  attacked  the  plant  before  the  drug  was  collected.  A  care- 
ful inspection  of  the  unpeeled  tree  barks  may  reveal  the  presence 
of  black  spots  about  the  size  of  a  pin-head ;  these  are  the  apo- 
thecia  of  spot  fungi,  or  perhaps  lichens,  to  be  mentioned  later. 
Since  these  spot  fungi  do  not  occur  upon  root  barks  their  absence 
or  presence  is  of  some  diagnostic  value.  Since  parasitic  fungi 
are  so  widely  distributed,  one  may  expect  to  find  them  normally 
present  in  many  drugs.  The  drug,  however,  decreases  in  value 
with  the  increase  in  the  areas  infected.  The  fungi  destroy  the 
active  constituents  of  the  drug  by  decomposing  them  chemically 


Characteristics  of  Powdkred  Vegetable  Drugs.         43 

This  applies  especially  to  leaves  and  herbs ;  fung-i  rarely  infest 
the  living  tree  barks  in  sufficient  numbers  to  modify  their  medic- 
inal value. 

Drugs  which  are  slowly  or  incompletely  dried,  or  which  are 
stored  in  damp  rooms  or  containers,  are  almost  invariably  at- 
tacked by  hyphal  fungi  as  well  as  bacteria.  The  hyphal  fungi  be- 
long  to  a  group  commonly  known  as  moulds.  They  grow  very 
rapidly ;  a  day  often  being  sufficient  to  spread  through  a  large 
collection,  the  hyphae  growing  over  the  surface,  into  crevices  and 
intercellular  spaces,  into  broken  cells,  along  the  path  of  vascular 
tissue,  finally  spreading  through  the  entire  supply.  In  the  case  of 
leaves  the  hyphse  gain  entrance  into  the  spongy  tissue  and  palisade 
tissue  by  way  of  stomata  and  broken  epidermis.  In  the  actively 
growing  stage  the  hyphee  are  white,  presenting  a  wooly  appear- 
ance. This  whitish  growth  can  readily  be  seen  as  it  spreads  over 
the  drugs.  There  is  also  the  very  marked  and  characteristic 
mouldy  or  musty  odor.  If  left  to  itself  the  fungus  finally  ceases 
growing,  due  to  lack  of  nourishment.  The  white  color  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  living  hyphse  then  disappears  and  the  attacked 
portions  of  the  drug  gradually  assume  a  darker  coloration.  Drugs 
thus  attacked  are  worthless  because  of  the  destruction  of  most  of 
the  active  constituents.  Leaves  and  herbs  are  especially  liable  to 
be  attacked  by  moulds ;  to  a  somewhat  lesser  degree,  also,  larger 
roots  and  rhizomes.  Not  only  are  crude  drugs  attacked  by  these 
fungi,  but  powdered  drugs,  also  extracts,  tinctures  and  especially 
syrups.  The  spores  of  the  moulds  are  to  be  found  every- 
where, and  are  carried  about  by  air  currents ;  hence  it  would  be 
impossible  to  exclude  or  destroy  the  spores.  It  is,  therefore,  nec- 
essary to  prevent  their  germination,  and,  very  fortunately,  this 
can  be  done  quite  readily  in  the  case  of  vegetable  drugs,  whether 
crude  or  powdered.  The  greatest  foes  to  the  development  of 
fungi,  moulds  and  bacteria  in  particular,  are  dryness  cold  and  sun- 
light. Therefore,  carefully  drying  all  vegetable  drugs  and  stor- 
ing them  in  dry  containers  in  a  dry,  cool  and  well-ventilated  store- 


44  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

room,  will  prevent  the  development  of  fungi,  though  the  spores 
may  be  present.  It  is,  however,  not  advisable  to  keep  drugs  ex- 
posed to  sunlight,  as  that  hastens  the  destructive  changes  of  the 
active  consituents. 

Microscopically,  the  presence  of  a  fungus,  whether  spot  fun- 
gus or  mould,  is  readily  detected  by  the  presence  of  the  character- 
istic hyphae,  which  are  not  readily  mistaken  for  anything  else. 

c.     Lichens. 

Lichens  are  a  very  interesting  group  of  plants,  resulting 
from  the  symbiotic  association  of  a  fungus  and  an  alga.  They, 
therefore,  present  the  histological  characteristics  of  hyphal  fungi 
and  some  of  the  usually  single-celled  lower  algae. 

These  plants  never  develop  upon  the  drug  itself.  When 
present  it  may  be  known  that  they  developed  upon  the  drug-yield- 
ing plant  before  the  drug  was  collected.  They  are  found  upon 
the  exterior  surface  of  some  unpeeled  tree  barks.  Lichens  never 
develop  under  ground,  hence  they  are  not  found  upon  root  barks 
or  other  subterranean  plant  organs.  Their  presence  is,  therefore, 
diagnostic  of  stem  barks,  though  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
they  are  found  on  all  stem  barks.  They  appear  most  commonly 
as  circumscribed  patches,  varying  in  size  and  color  (crustose 
lichens).  The  predominating  colors  being  ash  gray,  with  per- 
haps a  greenish  tinge,  some  are  reddish  yellow  or  orange.  The 
apothecia  may  resemble  those  of  spot  fungi  or  they  may  be  linear 
(Graphis).  Sometimes  remnants  of  foliose  lichens  (Parmelia, 
Physcia)  are  present ;  more  rarely  also  remnants  of  fruticose 
forms  (Usnea).  The  cinchona  barks  are  especially  rich  in  lich- 
ens, presenting  a  mottled  appearance,  due  to  the  presence  of  the 
crustose  thalli,  through  which  the  apothecia  are  distributed. 
Some  of  the  smaller  more  rudimentary  lichens  closely  resemble 
some  of  the  spot  fungi. 

The  presence  of  lichens  is  not  indicative  of  a  poor  quality  of 
the  drug.     If  present  in  considerable  numbers  there  is  no  doubt 


Characteristics  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.         45 

that  a  portion  of  the  active  constituents  of  the  drug  are  destroyed, 
due  to  the  hfe  activities  of  the  Hchens.  Since  lichens  are  less 
parasitic  (saprophytic)  in  their  mode  of  living  than  fungi,  they  do 
not  abstract  such  large  quantities  of  assimilation  products  of  the 
host  plant.  The  host  plant  serves  principally  as  a  physical  sup- 
port rather  than  a  source  of  food,  though  there  is  little  doubt  that 
some  food  is  supplied  to  the  lichen  by  the  host  plant  in  addition  to 
the  assimilation  products  prepared  and  supplied  by  the  symbiotic 
algae  (gonidia).  In  any  case,  lichens  occur  only  sparingly  upon 
a  comparatively  few  stem  barks  and  need  cause  no  concern  to  the 
pharmacist  as  regards  the  value  of  drugs.  They  are  principally 
of  botanical  interest,  and,  as  already  indicated,  they  are  of  some 
diagnostic  value. 

2.      ANIMAL    parasites. 

The  most  destructive  pests  to  vegetable  drugs  are  certain 
animals  which  feed  upon  the  drugs  in  containers  and  store-rooms. 
Some  drugs  are  more  readily  attacked  than  others.  Those  rich 
in  starch,  sugar  and  inulin  are  especially  liable  to  attack,  no  mat- 
ter how  poisonous  they  may  be,  as  strophantus,  belladonna  root 
and  aconite  root. 

These  parasites  belong  principally  to  the  insecta  and  arach- 
nida.  Of  the  insecta  the  most  common  is  Sitodrepa  paiiicea. 
This  is  a  small  beetle  about  one-fourth  inch  in  length,  of  a  dark 
brown  color.  The  insect  passes  its  entire  existence  among  the 
drugs.  The  larva  hatched  from  the  egg  is  a  light  colored  grub, 
which  feeds  very  voraciously  upon  the  drug  for  several  weeks, 
then  pupates  (resting  stage),  and  finally  develops  into  the  sex- 
ually mature  insect  (imago),  which  also  feeds  upon  the  drug  and 
lays  the  eggs  from  which  a  new  generation  springs.  As  indi- 
cated, the  larva  is  most  destructive.  Sometimes  almost  the  entire 
drug  is  destroyed,  leaving  only  a  thin  outer  shell,  which  crumbles 
to  pieces  under  the  lightest  touch. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  insect  parasites  which  may  be 


46  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

found  among  drugs.  Lasiodcniia  scrricornc  resembles  Sitodrcpa 
in  form  and  habits.  Ftiiius  hrunncns  is  somewhat  larger  with 
long  antennae ;  it  is  similar  in  habits,  but  seems  to  show  some 
preference  for  leaves  and  leafy  herbs  and  powders.  Other  com- 
paratively rare  insect  parasites,  which  occasionall}'  attack  drugs, 
are  Bostric/nis  dactilliperda  and  AntJircnus  scrop/iulariaccae, 
which  are  more  common  upon  furs  and  skins;  Anfhrciiiis  variiis 
generally  attacks  dried  animal  substances,  particularly  furs.  Tcn- 
ebrio  ohscurns,  Calandra  oryza,  Tinea  pcnionella  (the  ordinary 
cloth  moth),  and  a  number  of  other  insects  may  on  occasion  be 
found  feeding  upon  drugs. 

Of  the  arachnida  there  are  certain  mites  which  occasionally 
attack  drugs,  especially  powdered  drugs,  and  such  substances  as 
sugar,  starch,  flour  and  bran.  These  animals  are  very  small  and 
closely  related  to  the  familiar  cheese  mites,  sugar  mites,  meal 
mites,  itch  mites,  etc.  As  a  rule,  they  are  nearly  colorless,  and 
this,  combined  with  their  minuteness,  makes  it  dufficult  to  detect 
them  in  the  early  stages  of  infection.  They  occur  less  frequently 
than  insects  and  cause  serious  trouble  in  only  isolated  instances. 

It  does  not  matter  so  much  what  the  parasite  is.  The  point 
of  real  interest  is  that  drugs,  both  crude  and  powdered,  may  be 
attacked  by  various  animal  parasites ;  that  these  parasites  are 
often  very  destructive  and  constitute  a  nuisance  sometimes  not 
readily  combated.  If  one  keeps  in  mind  that  some  drugs  are 
more  readily  attacked  than  others,  it  will  simplify  the  matter  of 
watching  the  stock  on  hand  for  incipient  evidences  of  the  presence 
of  parasites.  If  mature  insects  are  present  it  indicates  that  the 
drug  is  infested.  Looking  over  the  infected  roots  and  rhizomes 
one  may  readily  observe  small  circular  openings  which  the  larva 
make  in  eating  their  way  in  or  out  of  the  drug.  By  means  of  the 
powerful  jaws  the  insect  converts  the  drug  into  a  powder,  some 
of  which  may  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  container  or  scattered 
through  it.  The  grub  literally  destroys  the  entire  interior  of  the 
drug,  leaving  only  a  thin  outer  shell  which  serves  as  a  protection 


Characteristics  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.         47 

to  the  insect  or  larva.  The  minute  round  holes  of  ingress  and 
egress  are  unmistakable  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the  parasites. 

The  following  drugs  are  most  liable  to  be  attacked  by  animal 
parasites:  Aconite  root,  angelicum,  apocynum,  asclepias,  bella- 
donna root,  calamus,  colchicum  corm,  ergot,  ginger,  inula,  iris, 
jalapa,  pellitory,  rheum,  taraxacum,  squill,  most  of  the  leaves  and 
herbs.  These  drugs,  whether  in  the  crude  state  or  powdered 
form,  should  be  inspected  frequently ;  if  the  parasites  are  present, 
as  evidenced  by  the  presence  of  the  insects  themselves,  their  larvae 
or  the  powder-like  particles  of  the  drug,  the  retainer  should  be 
emptied,  the  larvae,  insects  and  attacked  specimens  should  be  re- 
moved, drugs  and  retainer  thoroughly  cleaned,  dried  and  then  re- 
placed. These  watchful  measures  are  usually  all  that  is  required, 
but  to  make  sure  that  all  of  the  parasites  are  rendered  inactive 
the  drug  should  be  exposed  to  some  insecticide  which  does  not 
destroy  or  modify  the  active  constituents  of  the  drug  nor  poison 
it.  Bisulphide  of  carbon  is  perhaps  the  most  efifective  insecticide. 
It  kills  the  larvae  and  mature  insects,  but  does  not  destroy  the 
eggs ;  hence  several  inspections  are  necessary  after  the  insecticide 
has  been  used,  as  the  eggs  may  be  present  from  which  new  larvae 
develop. 

The  bisulphide  of  carbon  may  be  used  as  follows  :  Place  the 
cleaned  drug  loosely  in  the  container  or  in  a  roomy,  dry,  clean 
box  with  tight  cover  or  lid.  Pour  some  of  the  bisulphide  of 
carbon  in  a  flat  vessel  and  place  it  in  the  box  containing  the  drug, 
close  the  box  and  leave  the  drug  exposed  to  the  vapor  of  the  in- 
secticide for  several  hours  or  more,  the  time  of  exposure  depend- 
ing upon  the  quantity  of  the  drug. 

Pieces  of  gum  camphor  placed  with  the  drug  are  said  to  drive 
away  insects ;  it  does,  however,  not  kill  them.  Boxes  and  con- 
tainers in  which  insect  parasites  have  existed  should  be  thor- 
oughly washed  and  scalded  in  boiling  water  to  kill  the  eggs  that 
may  be  present  and  then  thoroughly  dried  before  the  drugs  are 
replaced. 


48  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

Powdered  drugs  may  be  treated  like  crude  drugs.  Larvae 
and  insects  may,  however,  be  more  readily  removed  by  sifting; 
the  eggs  will,  of  course,  pass  through  the  sieve  with  the  powder; 
hence  repeated  inspection  and  perhaps  repeated  sifting  may  be 
necessary.  The  mature  insects  of  powdered  drugs  usually  work 
their  way  to  the  sides  of  the  glass  bottles  and  other  transparent 
containers  where  they  can  be  readily  detected.  The  larvae  remain 
in  the  interior  of  the  powder. 

Chloroform  and  ether  may  be  used  like  bisulphide  of  carbon, 
or  it  may  be  sprinkled  over  the  drug  directly  and  the  container 
closed.  These  insecticides  must,  however,  not  be  used  too  fre- 
quently or  too  profusely,  as  they  undoubtedly  destroy  some  of  the 
active  constituents. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  best  to  discard  infested  drugs, 
especially  powders,  as  it  is  not  possible  to  remove  the  insects  com- 
pletely without  much  care  and  trouble. 


Powdering  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  49 


CHAPTER  III. 

Powdering;  Vegetable  Drugs. 

Since  most  crude  vegetable  drugs  must  be  reduced  to  a  pow- 
der for  the  purpose  of  the  ready  extraction  of  active  constiuents, 
the  student  of  pharmacy  and  the  practicing  pharmacist  should  be 
competent  to  pass  judgment  upon  the  quality  of  simple  vegetable 
powders. 

/.  Selection  of  Drugs  for  Powdering. — Vegetable  drugs  to 
be  powdered  should  be  of  good  quality,  well  garbled  and  free  from 
dirt,  dust,  lime,  sand  and  other  undesirable  substances.  The 
quality  of  the  drug  is  of  special  importance,  because  it  would 
be  very  difficult,  if  not  wholly  impossible,  to  distinguish  a  good 
quality  of  powder  from  a  powder  prepared  from  an  inferior  or 
worthless  drug.  Both  would  present  the  same  histological  char- 
acteristics, though  there  may  be  more  or  less  marked  dififerences 
in  color,  odor,  taste,  weight  and  consistency.  It  would  be  a  very 
simple  matter  for  the  unscrupulous  to  powder  winnowings,  ref- 
use, drugs  of  poor  grade,  and  place  them-  upon  the  market  as  the 
genuine  article.  Even  the  exhausted  powders  might  be  mixed 
with  the  fresh  powder  without  fear  of  detection,  unless  subjected 
to  a  careful  chemical  and  microscopical  examination.  We  shall 
again  recur  to  this  subject  under  the  head  of  adulterations. 

2.  Preparing  Drugs  for  Pozvdering. — Before  crude  vegeta- 
ble drugs  are  powdered  they  are  again  dried  to  remove  hygro- 
scopic moisture;  this  is  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  process 
of  powdering  easier,  as  the  tenaciousness  of  vegetable  tissues  in- 
creases with  the  amount  of  moisture  present.  It  should  also  be 
kept  in  mind  that  low  temperatures  increase  the  brittleness  of 


50  POVVDERLD  VEGETABLE  DrUGS.  • 

vegetable  tissues.  It  might,  therefore,  prove  advantageous  to 
powder  the  drugs  during  very  cold  weather  or  in  an  artificially 
reduced  temperature. 

Since  uniformity  of  the  strength  of  the  percolate  depends 
largely  upon  the  uniformity  in  the  fineness  of  the  powder,  it  is 
evident  that  conditions  for  powdering  crude  drugs  should  be  uni- 
form, especially  as  to  temperature  and  dryness.  Drying  should 
be  done  at  a  constant  moderate  temperature  (40  degrees  C.)  in 
order  to  reduce  the  loss  of  active  constituents.  Gas  ovens  with 
thermo-regulators  are  most  suitable. 

J.  Powdering.'^' — For  purposes  of  reducing  vegetable  drugs 
various  drug  mills  are  used,  in  some  instances  a  mortar  and  pestle 
are  sufficient.  Whatever  the  apparatus  employed,  it  should  have 
the  desired  operative  efifectiveness,  irrespective  of  size  and  work- 
ing capacity.  The  larger,  more  carefully  constructed  mills,  how- 
ever, yield  the  most  uniform  powders.  It  is  practically  impossible 
to  prepare  a  uniform  powder  by  means  of  pestle  and  mortar,  al- 
though this  apparatus  is  highly  recommended  by  some  authorities. 
It  is  a  tedious  process,  and  the  more  delicate  tissues  are  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder  long  before  the  more  fibrous  portions  begin  to  be 
broken  up ;  in  fact,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  reduce  bast, 
tracheids,  vessels  and  similar  tissues  to  anything  like  a  fine  pow- 
der. Some  authorities  suggest  that  this  difficulty  may  be  over- 
come by  separating  powders  thus  prepared  into  three  grades  as 
to  fineness,  and  in  percolating  to  place  the  finest  powder  at  the 
bottom  of  the  percolator.  This  suggestion  is,  however,  not  prac- 
ticable, as  will  become  self-evident  upon  careful  consideration. 

4.  Sifting. — The  fineness  is  determined  and  measured  by 
passing  the  powders  through  a  sieve  with  meshes  of  known  di- 
mensions. These  meshes  should  be  uniform  and  square  and  their 
dimensions  should  indicate  the  size  of  the  opening,  irrespective  of 

*For  description  of  appartus  and  methods  for  powdering,  sifting, 
etc.,  of  vegetable  drugs,  consult  a  standard  American  work  on  the  Practice 
of  Pharmacy. 


Powdering  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  51 

the  diameter  of  the  wire,  silk,  hair  or  other  substance  employed 
in  sieve  construction.  Here,  again,  it  is  found  that  the  larger 
machine-operated  sieves  are  more  satisfactory  than  the  smaller 
hand-sieves.  Sifting  should  be  done  carefully.  It  is  necessary 
to  clean  the  sieves  frequently,  as  very  fine  particles  cling  to  the 
wire,  silk  or  hair,  especially  at  the  angles,  thus  allowing  only  par- 
ticles to  pass  through  which  are  considerably  smaller  than  the 
free  mesh. 

The  fineness  of  powders  is  indicated  by  the  diameter  of  the 
meshes  given  in  the  metric  system  or  English  system,  representing 
a  definite  number  of  meshes  to  the  centimeter  or  to  the  inch. 

The  homogeneity  and  fineness  of  the  powder  is  greatly  modi- 
fied by  the  force  with  which  the  sieve  is  operated.  Sifting  lightly 
allows  only  the  finer  particles  to  pass  through ;  upon  shaking 
the  sieve  with  greater  force  coarser  particles  pass  through  also. 
Sieves  should  be  kept  closed  so  as  to  prevent  loss  of  powder  and 
also  to  prevent  inhalation  of  poisonous  and  irritating  drugs.* 

5.  Uniform  Pozvdcring. — All  parts  of  the  drug  should  be 
reduced  to  the  same  degree  of  fineness.  Typical  starch-bearing 
parenchyma  is  reduced  to  the  desired  degree  of  fineness  before 
the  more  tenacious  tissues,  as  bast,  tracheids,  vessels,  etc.,  begin 
to  be  finely  crushed.  As  the  less  resisting  tissues  become  re- 
duced sufficiently  they  should  be  removed  by  sifting,  and  the  re- 
maining fibrous  tissues  should  be  reduced  until  all  will  pass 
through  the  sieve.  With  some  drugs  it  is  possible  to  separate 
the  parenchymatous,  medcinally  active  tissues  from  the  fibrous 
and  comparatively  inactive  tissues,  as  with  ipecac.  Some  phar- 
macopoeias recommend  that  this  be  done.  It  is,  however,  a  pro- 
cess not  readily  put  into  practice,  and.  hence  is  not  generally 
carried  out,  even  with  the  few  drugs  where  such  a  process  would 
be  possible. 


*In  powdering  as   well  as   sifting    irritating    and    poisonous    drugs,' 
eyes,  nose  and  mouth  should  be  protected  by  means  of  a  cloth  or  sponge. 


52  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

6.  Mixing  of  Pozvdcrs. — After  grinding  and  sifting,  the 
powder  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  in  order  that  the  compara- 
tively active  and  inactive  particles  may  be  distributed  uniformly; 
otherwise  one  portion  of  the  powder  might  be  more  active  than 
another  portion.  Upon  standing  for  some  time  and  during  ship- 
ment the  heavier  particles  become  more  or  less  separated  from 
the  lighter  particles.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  to  thoroughly  mix 
the  powder  again  just  before  a  portion  or  all  of  it  is  to  be  used. 

7.  Fineness  of  Powders. — The  fineness  of  the  powder  will 
depend  upon  its  intended  use.  Theoretically  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  finer  the  powder  the  quicker  and  more  complete  the  extraction 
of  active  constituents,  no  matter  whether  intended  for  internal 
use,  for  alcoholic  extraction  or  for  equeous  extraction.  The  ac- 
tive constituents  occur  in  the  cell-lumen  and  in  the  cell-walls ;  the 
individual  cell  should,  therefore,  be  broken  that  the  extractive 
substance,  whether  it  be  the  saliva,  gastric  juice,  alcohol  or  water, 
may  permeate  the  cell-wall  and  occupy  the  cell-lumen  and  take  up 
(by  solution  and  asmosis)  the  medicinal  principles.  Theoret- 
ically, therefore,  all  cells,  whether  long,  tabular  or  isodiametric, 
should  be  separated  from  each  other  and  each  cell  should  be 
broken  in  two.  This  would  imply  that  the  various  drugs  should 
be  reduced  to  very  fine  powders.  Such  a  condition  exists  prac- 
tically in  so-called  meals,  as  flour,  almond  meal,  insect  powder 
and  most  powders  intended  for  internal  use.  Upon  making  a 
microscopic  examination  of  powders  designated  as  No.  80  and 
No.  100,  it  will  be  found  that  cell  groups  still  remain.  It  must 
also  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  cells  of  different  drugs  vary  consid- 
erably in  size.  Drugs  from  aquatic  plants,  semi-aquatic  plants 
and  plants  growing  in  marshy  soil  have  larger  cells  than  drugs 
from  plants  growing  in  dry  soil ;  hence  the  powders  of  the  former 
drugs  need  not  be  so  finely  reduced  as  those  of  the  latter. 

While  vegetable  powders  cannot  be  too  fine  from  a  theoret- 
ical standpoint,  it  is  found  that  for  practical  purposes  of  extrac- 
tion   (percolation)    the  finest   powders   are  not   available.     The 


Powdering  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  53 

small  particles  pack  together  so  closely  as  to  check  or  prevent  per- 
colation. The  fineness  of  powders  must  not  only  be  adapted  to 
the  methods  and  agents  employed  in  percolation,  but  also  to  the 
extractive  it  is  desired  to  obtain. 

Powders  intended  for  internal  use  cannot  be  too  fine.  As 
regards  the  fineness  of  powders  for  the  preparation  of  infusions, 
extracts  and  tinctures,  it  may  be  stated  that  for  alcoholic  extrac- 
tion the  fineness  must  be  greater  than  for  aqueous  extraction, 
since  alcohol  does  not  penetrate  and  permeate  cell-walls  so  readily 
as  does  water.  Aqueous  extracts  contain  more  of  the  inert  con- 
stituents, but  certain  cell-contents  are  soluble  in  alcohol  only,  as 
resin,  fats  and  some  volatile  oil. 

Some  drugs  cannot  readily  be  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  di- 
rectly, as,  for  instance,  seeds  rich  in  oil ;  as  nutmeg,  croton  beans, 
castor  beans,  almonds,  cardamom  and  other  aromatic  seeds.  The 
oil  is  first  removed  and  the  powdering  done  subsequently,  or  some 
inert  substance  is  added,  as  sand,  sugar,  starch,  or  dry,  woody 
substance,  which  serves  as  a  comminuting  menstruum.  Orange 
peel,  lemon  peel,  slippery  elm,  mezerion,  etc.,  are  first  chopped 
into  small  bits,  dried  and  then  powdered  in  the  usual  way. 

In  the  United  States  the  size  of  the  meshes  of  the  sieves  or 
the  fineness  of  the  powders  is  indicated  in  the  English  system. 
Very  fine  powders,  exceeding  100  meshes  to  the  linear  inch,  are 
usually  designated  as  dusted  powders  or  meals,  and  are  intended 
for  internal  use  or  other  special  use;  as  insect  powders.  Nos. 
80-100  are  also  largely  intended  for  internal  use,  but  may  also  be 
employed  for  alcoholic  percolation.  Nos.  50  and  60  are  more 
generally  better  suited  for  percolation.  For  aqueous  extraction 
coarser  powders  are  suitable,  as  Nos.  20-40.  For  decoctions, 
broken  drugs  or  even  entire  drugs,  as  leaves,  leaflets  and  some 
herbs,  may  be  employed. 

In  Europe  the  number  of  meshes  are  given  in  the  metric  sys- 
tem. In  Germany,  for  instance,  5  to  15  meshes  to  the  centimeter 
indicate  coarse  powders  ;  20  to  25  meshes,  medium  ;  and  30  to  50 


54  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

meshes,  fine  powders.  Sieves  for  fine  powders  are  usually  made 
of  silk  thread,  horse  hair  for  medium  powder  and  wire  for  coarse 
powders.  For  very  fine  meals  bolting  cloth  is  used  in  sifting. 
Powders  containing  acid  are*  not  sifted  through  metal  sieves,  as 
the  wire  would  be  corroded.  The  fineness  of  the  material  used 
should  harmonize  more  or  less  with  the  fineness  of  the  powder. 
The  hygroscopic  moisture  of  the  powder  and  that  of  the  sieve 
threads  interferes  very  materially  with  uniform  sifting ;  hence  the 
necessity  of  keeping  powder  and  sieve  dry  and  cleaning  the  sieve 
repeatedly.  Frequent  cleaning  is  especially  required  when  sift- 
ing oily  powders. 

8.  Presen'ation  of  Pozvders. — As  already  indicated,  pow- 
dered drugs  deteriorate  much  more  rapidly  than  crude  drugs ;  it 
is,  therefore,  urged  not  to  powder  drugs  until  required  for  use, 
and  never  to  powder  more  than  can  be  used  within  a  compara- 
tively short  period.  Some  powders  deteriorate  more  rapidly  than 
other,  just  as  some  crude  drugs  deteriorate  more  rapidly  than 
others.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  some  uniform  and  ef- 
ficient method  of  powdering,  packing,  shipping  and  storing  is 
not  enforced.  Each  package  or  bottle  of  the  vegetable  powder 
should  have  upon  it  a  statement  of  the  age  of  the  drug  from  which 
the  powder  was  made,  date  of  powdering  and  when  it  should  be 
renewed.  Some  effective  method  of  compensating  for  loss  of 
active  constituents  should  also  be  recommended. 

After  grinding  the  powder  should  again  be  carefully  and 
thoroughly  dried  at  a  moderate  temperature  and  immediately 
placed  in  perfectly  dry,  well-stoppered  bottles  or  other  suitable 
containers. 

p.  The  Characteristics  of  Vegetable  Poivders. — Since  vege- 
table powders  are  readily  subject  to  deterioration  and  adulteration, 
it  is  quite  important  that  the  pharmacist  should  be  able  to  recog- 
nize the  characteristics  of  pure  powders.  While  the  odor  and 
taste  are  the  same  in  quality  as  that  of  the  crude  drug,  it  should  be 
kept  in  mind  that  these  properties  are  less  marked  quantitatively. 


Powdering  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  55 

The  odor  in  particular  dissipates  very  rapidly.  Attention  should 
be  given  to  fineness,  consistency  and  weight.  If  powders  of  oily 
drugs  are  dry  and  mealy  it  indicates  that  the  oil  was  removed 
previous  to  powdering.  If  the  powder  is.  deficient  in  weight  it 
indicates  that  winnowings  or  a  poor  grade  of  drug  were  used. 

The  color  of  the  powder  is,  of  course,  uniform  and  harmon- 
izes more  or  less  with  the  predominating  color  of  the  crude  drug, 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  color  varies  greatly.  For  in- 
stance, exposure  to  light  deadens  the  color  quite  rapidly,  the  ten- 
dency being  toward  grayish  shades  and  tints.  Exposure  to  mois- 
ture and  the  presence  of  vegetable  parasites  produces  darker 
shades.  The  fineness  of  the  powders,  also,  greatly  modifies  the 
color,  increased  fineness  producing  tint  effects.  In  some  instances 
the  quality  of  the  color  is  even  changed ;  for  instance,  powdered 
licorice  of  medium  fineness  is  yellow,  while  the  licorice  meal  is 
much  lighter,  with  a  decided  lemon  color.  Roasting  produces 
dark  to  nearly  black  colorations.  Powders  made  from  plant  parts 
rich  in  oil  and  fat,  as  cloves,  almonds,  larkspur,  stavesacre,  etc., 
darken  rapidly,  and  become  rancid,  due  to  the  decomposition  of 
the  fats  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerine. 

Powdered  vegetable  drugs  may  be  grouped  according  to  the 
following  colors : 

I.     Very  Light.     Mostly  seeds  and  roots. 

1.  White,  as  starches  and  cereal  flour. 

2.  Very  light,  tinged  with  yellow,  red  or  some  dark 

substance ;  as  althaea,  orris  root,  colocynth,  etc. 
II.     Yellow.     Alostly  roots  and  rhizomes.     A  few  flowers  and 
barks. 

1.  Pale  yellow  and  straw  yellow. 

2.  Orange  yellow  and  lemon. 

3.  Brownish  yellow  and  yellowish  brown. 
III.     Green.     Mostly  leaves  and  herbs. 

1.  Grayish  green. 

2.  Brownish  green. 


56  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

IV.     Gray.     Mostly  roots. 

1.  Ash  gray. 

2.  Brownish  gray  and  dark  gray. 
V.     Brown.     Mostly  barks. 

1.  Reddish  brown. 

2.  Dark  brown. 

VI.     Very  dark.     A  few  barks,  as  juglans.     Roasted  drugs. 

1.  \'ery  dark,  tinged  with  red  or  yellow. 

2.  Black,  as  charcoal. 

Some  of  the  vegetable  drugs  give  color  reactions  with  certain 
chemicals  (strong  solution  of  potassium  hydrate  and  sulphuric 
acid),  which  are  more  or  less  useful  in  determining  the  identity 
and  purity  of  the  powder. 

Since  the  gross  characters  of  powdered  vegetable  drugs  are 
variable  and  otherwise  unreliable,  the  pharmacist  must  look  to 
other  and  more  reliable  characters.  The  histological  elements  of 
drugs  are  not  materially  changed,  no  matter  what  the  changes  in 
color,  odor,  taste  and  weight  may  be.  A  careful  microscopical 
examination  is  the  only  reliable  means  of  determining  the  identity 
of  a  powder,  but  here  also  difficulties  are  met  with,  as  shall  be  in- 
dicated in  the  following  chapters. 

The  methods  of  microscopic  examination  should  be  uniform 
for  the  different  powders,  and  great  care  is  necessary  to  avoid 
confusion.  The  examiner  will  not  be  able  to  obtain  reliable  re- 
sults unless  he  is  familiar  with  the  histolog}-  of  plants  and  has  the 
ability  to  recognize  different  cell- forms  in  w^hatever  position  they 
may  be  found.  For  microscopic  examination  the  most  suitable 
fineness  is  No.  40  to  60  for  low  powders  and  about  No.  80  for  high 
power  work.  Very  fine  powders,  as  No.  100  and  finer,  are 
rarely  desirable  for  microscopic  work.  For  more  detailed  direc- 
tions regarding  the  microscopical  examination  of  powders  and 
crude  drugs  see  Chapter  V. 


Adulteration  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  57 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Adulteration  or  Sophistication  of  Vegetable  Drugs* 

Since  adulterated  crude  drugs  are  as  likely,  or  even  more 
likely,  to  be  powdered  than  pure  drugs,  substitution,  adulteration 
and  sophistication  must  be  treated  in  a  general  way.  We  cannot 
enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  various  motives  which  lead  to  the 
practice  of  sophistication  in  pharmacy ;  suffice  it  to  know  that 
crude  as  well  as  powdered  vegetable  drugs  are  frequently  placed 
upon  the  market  variously  adulterated.  In  some  instances  adul- 
teration is  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception,  as  in  the  case  of 
powdered  elm  bark  and  some  spices.  In  recognition  of  such  facts 
it  becomes  highly  important  that  the  practicing  pharmacist  should 
have  the  training  requisite  to  the  detection  of  such  fraudulent 
work. 

Naturally,  those  who  market  adulterated  drugs  take  great 
care  to  conceal  the  fraud,  and  in  this  the  misplaced  ability  of  the 
unscrupulous  is  pitted  against  the  intelligence  of  the  trained 
pharmacist,  whose  duty  it  is  to  detect  and  expose  such  crooked 
work.  The  uneducated  and  inadequately  qualified  pharmacist  is 
wholly  defenseless  against  the  criminal  practices  of  the  unprin- 
cipled collector,  dealer  and  jobber,  and  he  should  accordingly  be 
excluded  from  the  profession. 

Some  drugs  lend  themselves  more  readily  to  sophistication 
than  others.  Powdered  vegetable  drugs  are  more  readily  and 
more  generally  adulterated  than  crude  drugs.  In  some  instances 
the  fraud  is  quite  readily  detected,  while  in  other  instances  great 
skill  and  careful  investigation  are  necessary  to  detect  the  decep- 
tion. 


58  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

It  is  evident  that  with  the  progress  in  pharmaceutical  educa- 
tion adulteration  decreases  and  the  methods  become  altered  in 
accordance  with  such  progress.  Crude  methods  of  common  prac- 
tice in  the  past  are  supplanted  by  more  scientific  modern  methods. 
With  these  introductory  statements  we  shall  now  enter  into  a  brief 
consideration  of  the  more  common  forms  of  adulteration,  the 
more  common  substances  employed,  and  outline  the  more  suitable 
methods  of  detecting  them. 

I.     Adulterations  as  to  Intent. 

Not  by  any  means  all  of  the  drug  adulterations  are  premedi- 
tated and  many  may  never  become  known  ;  that  is,  an  adulteration 
does  not  always  imply  criminal  intent.  As  will  be  seen,  ignorance 
plays  a  very  important  part  in  unintentional  sophistication,  and 
this  indicates  very  clearly  the  necessity  of  employing  technical 
skill  in  securing  pure  medicinal  substances  for  the  relief  and  cure 
of  disease. 

I.     Uniiifcntional  or  Accidental  Adulteration. 

This  form  of  adulteration  is  by  no  means  uncommon,  and  is 
due  to  ignorance  and  carelessness.  In  some  instances  it  is  wholly 
free  from  blame,  but  in  other  instances  the  ignorance  is  so  marked 
and  the  carelessness  so  evident  as  to  deserve  as  much  condemna- 
tion as  intentional  deception.  The  following  are  the  principal 
causes  of  this  form  of  sophistication  : 

I.  Ignorance  on  the  part  of  collectors  who  gather  the  wrong 
plant  or  mix  the  genuine  drug  with  worthless  material.  This  par- 
ticular form  of  sophistication  is  not  very  common,  as  collectors,  na- 
tives  and  others,  usually  select  the  right  drug  instinctively.  Such 
errors  are  generally  made  by  new  and  inexperienced  collectors, 
but  these  soon  learn  to  avoid  such  mistakes ;  furthermore,  they 
are  quite  generally  properly  instructed  by  the  experienced  collec- 
tors. 


Adulteration  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  59 

A  much  more  fruitful  source  of  sophistication  is  carelessness 
on  the  part  of  collectors.  Roots  and  rhizomes  are  hurriedly  and 
carelessly  gathered,  an  excessive  amout  of  soil  is  left  clinging  to 
them,  along  with  undesirable  plant  parts,  and  the  roots,  leaves, 
branches,  etc.,  of  smaller  foreign  plants.  This  applies  particu- 
larly to  the  roots  and  rhizomes  collected  in  America,  which  are,  as 
a  rule,  also  carelessly  dried.  Again,  collectors  are  not  adequately 
instructed  as  to  how  and  when  to  collect.  Drugs  collected  out  of 
season  or  carelessly  dried  are  more  or  less  worthless.  To  avoid 
this,  collectors  should  be  more  definitely  instructed  by  competent 
authorities. 

2.  Ignorance  on  the  part  of  botanists  who  fail  to  distinguish 
between  related  species  and  varieties.  Drugs  from  two  wholly 
distinct  species  or  varieties,  one  of  which  is  more  or  less  worth- 
less, are  supposed  to  be  identical,  and  are  placed  (ipon  the  market 
variously  intermixed.  Again,  in  a  nvmiber  of  instances  the  bo- 
tanical origin  of  the  drug-yielding  plant  is  wholly  unknown,  as 
with  sarsaparilla,  coto  bark  and  some  cinnamons.  This  form  of 
sophistication  was  more  common  in  the  past.  The  leading  au- 
thorities are  often  uncertain  regarding  the  exact  influence  of  cli- 
matic conditions,  cultivation,  etc.,  as  already  indicated ;  and  this 
is  often  responsible  for  an  inferior  quality  of  the  drug. 

3.  Ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  practicing  pharmacist.  As 
indicated  in  the  introduction,  if  the  pharmacist  does  not  have  an 
adequate  pharmaceutical  training  he  is  wholly  at  the  mercy  of 
unscrupulous  jobbers,  who  will  sell  him  their  worthless  material, 
reserving  the  genuine  wares  for  the  intelligent  pharmacists  who 
cannot  be  duped  so  readily.  The  ignorant  pharmacist  will  fre- 
quently purchase  a  cheap  drug,  especially  powdered  drugs  and 
spices,  under  the  impression  that  he  is  getting  a  first-class  article 
at  a  bargain.  The  ignorant  pharmacist  is  also  liable  to  use  and 
sell  material  which  has  become  worthless  through  age,  exposure 
to  moisture,  contamination  with  bacteria,  hyphal  fungi  and  other 
parasites. 


6o  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

4.  Exaggeration  and  untrustworthy  work  of  analytical 
chemists  who  claim  to  have  discovered  medicinal  substances  which 
do  not  exist  at  all,  or  only  in  small  quantities.  This  is  usually  the 
case  when  some  new  remedy  is  vaunted.  This  form  of  sophisti- 
cation is  unintentional  in  so  far  as  inherent  human  enthusiasm 
naturally  leads  to  more  or  less  exaggeration.  It  has  little  effect 
with  the  intelligent  pharmacists  and  physicians,  as  they  will  not 
recommend  or  use  a  drug  until  it  has  been  thoroughly  tested  by 
competent  and  unbiased  chemists  and  physiologists. 

2.     Intentional  or  Criminal  Adulteration. 

This  form  of  adulteration  is  due  to  an  utter  lack  of  con- 
science. Foreign  substances  are  added  to  the  salable  drugs  with 
a  view  to  deriving  a  pecuniary  profit  above  that  which  comes 
from  dealing  in  the  genuine  article.  Every  housewife  knows 
that  powdered  spices,  as  pepper,  cinnamon,  allspice  and  cloves  are 
subject  to  adulteration.  This  is  of  such  common  occurrence  that 
it  is  advisable  to  purchase  the  whole  spice  and  grind  it  at  home. 
The  pharmacist  should  apply  this  suggestion  to  vegetable  drugs, 
in  so  far  as  that  is  possible.  The  following  are  the  common 
methods  and  sources  of  criminal  adulteration : 

1.  Intentional  adulteration  by  collectors.  The  prime  motive 
may  spring  from  a  scarcity  of  the  drug;  an  effort  is,  therefore, 
made  to  bring  the  quantitative  supply  to  the  normal  by  adding 
worthless  material  or  inferior  grades.  Again,  the  quantitative 
supply  may  not  be  deficient,  but  inordinate  greed  on  the  part  of 
the  collector  leads  to  the  addition  of  some  adulterant  for  the  pur- 
pose of  increasing  the  bulk. 

2.  Intentional  adulteration  by  dealers  and  jobbers,  (a) 
Dealers  may  purchase  inferior  grades  of  collectors  and  sell  them 
as  first-class  articles  to  ignorant  retailers  or  pharmacists.  This 
is  very  common  practice,  (b)  Foreign  material  is  added  to  the 
drug  and  sold  at  a  price  below  that  of  the  honest  dealers ;  or  (c) 


Adulteration  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  6i 

The  dealer  may  maintain  the  price  while  furnishing  additional 
bulk  to  be  sold  over  and  above  the  amount  that  can  be  sold  by 
honest  competitors. 

3.  Intentional  adulteration  by  practicing  pharmacists.  This 
is  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence,  as  the  pharmacist  soon  learns 
that  such  practice  injures  his  trade.  The  alert  and  competent 
members  of  the  medical  profession,  who  have  the  direct  interest  of 
the  sick  at  heart,  make  such  criminal  practice  almost  impossible. 

4.  Intentional  fraudulent  testimony  by  scientists  (botanists 
and  chemists),  who  claim  to  have  discovered  some  new  useful 
drug.  This,  likewise,  is  of  rare  occurrence,  as  the  fraud  is 
promptly  exposed  by  honest  authorities. 

Of  these  criminal  practices  it  is  the  middleman,  dealer  or 
jobber  who  is  most  likely  to  prove  the  guilty  party.  The  collec- 
tor is  closely  supervised  by  the  dealer,  who  will  generally  insist 
upon  a  genuine  article,  but  will  attempt  to  palm  oft"  inferior  or 
worthless  material  on  the  retailer.  It  is,  therefore,  largely  the  in- 
telligent practicing  pharmacist  who  must  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  purifying  the  drug  trade. 

II.     Manner  of  Adulteration. 

The  adulterants  added  to  vegetable  drugs  vary  greatly  as  to 
kind  and  quantity.  In  some  instances  the  foreign  substance  is 
added  in  comparatively  small  quantities,  so  as  to  prevent  ready  de- 
tection ;  in  other  instances  large  quantities  are  added,  and  again 
there  may  be  complete  substitution.  We  may,  therefore,  recog- 
nize partial  substitution  and  complete  substitution. 

I.     Partial  Substitution. 

This  form  of  sophistication  is  most  commonly  practiced,  the 
intention  being  to  retain  the  apparently  normal  identity  of  the 
drug.  The  sophisticant  must,  therefore,  not  be  added  in  large 
quantities,    otherwise   the    fraud    is    too    readily   detected.     The 


62  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

amount  added  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  judgment  and  in> 
telligence  of  the  sophisticator.  If  he  fears  the  detective  powers 
of  the  qualified  pharmicist  he  will  refrain  from  his  crooked 
work  entirely,  or  will  add  only  small  quantities  (one  to  five  per 
cent.,  or  somewhat  more).  In  other  instances  he  will  not  hesitate 
to  add  as  much  as  fifty  per  cent.,  or  even  more.  It  is  generally 
quite  difficult  to  estimate  the  amount  of  the  sophisticant  added. 
In  the  case  of  crude  drugs  it  would  be  necessary  to  go  through 
the  entire  collection  and  carefully  winnow  out  the  foreign  sub- 
stance or  substances.  This  is  a  tedious  task,  but  the  results  are 
quite  accurate.  In  the  case  of  powdered  drugs  the  matter  be- 
comes much  more  difficult,  as  has  already  been  indicated,  and  as 
will  be  more  fully  explained  in  Chapter  \\ 

2.     Complete  Snbsitutiou. 

This  form  of  sophistication  is  not  commonly  practiced  with 
vegetable  drugs,  though  it  is  not  at  all  unusual  in  other  depart- 
ments of  pharmacy.  It  is  recorded  that  nutmegs  have  been  made 
of  wood ;  a  reckless  form  of  adulteration,  said  to  have  been  ex- 
tensively practiced  in  Connecticut,  and  which  gave  the  State  the 
sobriquet  "Nutmeg  State."  Imitation  cofifee  beans  have  been 
made  of  pressed  clay,  cloves  of  roasted  and  pressed  starch.  A 
mixture  of  tartar  emetic  and  some  inert  vegetable  powder  has 
been  substituted  for  powdered  ipecac,  etc.  But  such  crude  sub- 
stitution is  not  commonly  practiced.  It  is  more  usual  to  substi- 
tute a  closely  related  plant  or  plant  part  for  the  drug  itself, 
whether  in  the  crude  or  powdered  state.  For  instance,  the  west- 
ern senega  is  substituted  for  the  southern  variety  ;  one  variety  of 
cinchona  for  another,  etc.  In  some  instances  total  substitution 
may  be  due  to  a  mistake,  a  misunderstanding  or  to  ignorance. 
For  example,  safflower  has  been  sold  for  safifron  under  the  ignor- 
ant belief  that  it  was  the  true  Spanish  drug. 


Adulteration  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  63 

III.     Substances  Employed  in  Sophistication. 

The  material  more  usually  employed  in  the  adulteration  of 
vegetable  drugs  may  be  divided  into  two  groups ;  that  added  to 
crude  drugs  and  powdered  drugs  and  that  which  may  be  added  to 
powders  only.  The  material  employed  does  not  necessarily  give 
anv  indication  whether  or  not  the  sophistication  was  accidental 
or  intentional,  though  in  many  instances  it  does  give  such  evi- 
dence. For  instance,  if  willow  leaves  and  poplar  leaves  are  found 
with  tea  we  may  safely  conclude  that  the  sophistication  was  crim- 
inal, as  even  the  most  ignorant  collector  can  distinguish  between 
tea  leaves  and  willow  leaves.  If  starch  or  flour  is  found  in  a 
powder  normally  free  from  starch  we  may  again  safely  conclude 
that  the  sophistication  was  criminal.  The  presence  of  the  first 
year  leaves  of  digitalis  among  the  second  year  leaves  may  be 
wholly  unintentional. 

I.     Organic  Substances. 

1.  Closely  Related  Plants  and  their  Varieties. — This  is  the 
more  usual  material  employed,  as  in  many  instances  the  physio- 
logical action,  the  gross  characters  and  histological  characters  are 
closely  similar.  In  some  instances,  however,  the  gross  characters 
may  be  similar  while  the  histological  characters  are  different,  and 
vice  versa.  For  example,  we  find  that  Apocynuni  cannabinnm 
and  A.  androsaemifolium,  Surinam  quassia  and  Jamaica  quassia, 
resemble  each  other  as  to  gross  appearances,  but  the  histological 
characters  are  quite  different.  A.  aiidrosaeinifoliuni  is  distin- 
guished from  the  other  species  by  the  presence  of  stone-cells.  The 
Surinam  quassia  differs  from  the  other  in  the  form  of  the  medul- 
lary rays  and  the  presence  of  stone-cells  in  the  bark. 

2.  Remote  Plants  and  their  Varieties. — Not  infrequently 
plants  and  plant  parts  having  no  close  botanic  relationship  to  the 
drug-yielding  plant,  are  used  as  sophisticants,  whether  for  crude 
drugs   or  powders.     Sawdust  is   added   to   powdered  vegetable 


64  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

drugs  to  increase  the  bulk.  Remote  plants  and  plant  organs  may 
be  substituted  for  the  drug  itself  because  of  a  similarity  in  physio- 
logical action.  Such  adulterations  are,  as  a  rule,  quite  readily 
detected. 

J.  Refuse  and  IVinnowings. — These  are  usually  powdered 
and  added  to  the  pure  article  or  sold  separately.  The  refuse  and 
winnowings  of  spices,  pepper  in  particular,  are  quite  generally 
used  as  indicated.  This  will  explain  why  it  is  possible  for  some 
dealers  to  sell  ground  spices  and  other  vegetable  powders  at  a 
price  much  below  that  of  the  market  value  of  the  genuine  crude 
drug  itself.  The  fraud  is  not  by  any  means  easily  detected,  be- 
cause the  histological  characters  of  the  refuse  and  winnowings 
are  the  same  or  similar  to  those  of  the  pure  article.  Giving  care- 
ful attention  to  weight,  color,  odor  and  taste  will  generally  dis- 
close the  fraud,  especially  when  combined  with  a  thorough  micro- 
scopical examination. 

4.  Exhausted  Drugs. — Exhausted  drugs,  whether  crude  or 
powdered,  are  not  infrequently  redried  and  again  placed  upon  the 
market,  generally  after  being  mixed  with  the  pure  article.  This 
applies,  for  instance,  to  tea,  ground  coffee,  expressed  cloves  and 
other  powdered  drugs  and  spices,  and  other  medicinal  substances. 
In  some  hotels  and  tea-houses  where  tea  is  used  in  large  quantities 
the  exhausted  leaves  are  collected,  dried  and  rolled  with  good  tea 
and  placed  upon  the  market.  Coffee  grounds  are  collected,  dried 
and  mixed  with  good  ground  coffee.  Exhausted  powders  are 
taken  from  the  percolators,  dried  and  mixed  with  pure  powders. 

5.  Inferior  Drugs. — Drugs  having  become  more  or  less 
worthless  through  infection  with  vegetable  and  animal  parasites, 
through  age,  exposure  to  moisture  and  sunlight,  etc.,  are  sold  as 
genuine  or  mixed  with  the  genuine.  Drugs  more  or  less  worth- 
less because  collected  out  of  season,  improperly  cultivated,  care- 
lessly dried,  etc.,  are  also  placed  upon  the  market.  Such  drugs 
are  generally  sold  in  the  powdered  state,  as  that  renders  detection 
more  difficult.     In  the  case  of  crude  inferior  drugs  careful  atten- 


Adulteration  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  65 

tion  should  be  given  to  color,  odor  and  taste,  as  compared  with 
the  pure  drug.  A  careful  chemical  test  may  prove  useful,  as  al- 
kaloids and  other  active  constituents  are  greatly  reduced  in  such 
drugs. 

6.  Sfarclics  and  Meals. — These  substances  are  added  to 
powdered  drugs  only.  Starch  and  flower  have  ever  been  exten- 
sively employed  in  drug  adulteration.  They  are  cheap,  plentiful 
everywhere,  easily  obtained  and  perfectly  harmless.  The  mod- 
ern sophisticant  must,  however,  be  very  cautious  in  their  use,  as 
the  cheaper  and  more  common  starches  and  meals  have  character- 
istic granules  and  are,  therefore,  readily  detected  and  identified 
microscopically.  If  starch  is  added  to  a  drug  which  is  normally 
free  from  starch,  the  fraud  is  detected  at  once.  Various  cereal 
meals  are  generally  employed,  as  wheat  flour,  corn  meal,  oat  meal, 
etc.  Occasionally  the  flour  or  starch  is  partially  roasted.  This 
renders  it  less  conspicuous  because  of  its  whiteness  and  partially 
dextrinizes  the  starch  granules,  thus  rendering  their  detection 
more  difficult.  Meals  free  from  starch  are  occasionally  employed 
in  the  adulteration  of  vegetable  powders,  especially  almond  meal. 

Some  powdered  drugs  are  so  commonly  adulterated  that 
dealers  boldly  assert  that  a  pure  article  does  not  exist ;  this  ap- 
plies, for  instance,  to  powdered  elm  bark,  which  is  quite  univer- 
sally adulterated  with  starch  and  flour.  Kamala  is  quite  gener- 
ally adulterated  with  colored  starch  and  sand.  Such  substances 
as  powdered  pepper,  cayenne  pepper  and  mustard  are  quite  fre- 
quently adulterated  with  considerable  quantities  of  flour. 

7.  Insects  and  Insect  Remnants. — These  are  never  added 
intentionally.  They  are  quite  frequently  accidentally  present  in 
some  drugs,  as  leaves,  flowers  and  barks.  The  insects  cling  to  or 
are  retained  by  the  various  plant  parts,  where  they  die  and  are 
collected  with  the  drug.  Aphidce  (plant  lice)  are  very  plentifully 
found  with  the  strobiles  of  hunuilus.  In  all  such  mstances  the 
organisms  are  dead  and  need  cause  no  concern,  as  they  are  rarely, 
if  ever,  present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  injure  the  value  of  the 


66  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

drug.  They  are  mentioned  here  because  students  are  apt  to  find 
occasional  insects  and  insect  remnants  in  the  microscopical  ex- 
amination of  drugs.  The  presence  of  living  insects  and  other 
animals  is  evidence  that  the  drug  is  attacked  by  a  destructive  para- 
site and  should  be  promptly  attended  to. 

2.     Inorganic  Substances. 

1.  Sand. — This  substance  is  added  to  powdered  drugs,  and 
it  is  surprising  to  find  how  extensively  it  is  used.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  kept  in  mind  that  a  small  amount  of  sand  is  normally 
present  in  many  drugs.  Air  currents  carry  dust  and  sand  par- 
ticles to  all  exposed  parts  of  plants ;  it  accumulates  in  crevices  of 
barks  and  other  irregularities  of  plant  surfaces ;  it  is  readily  re- 
tained by  waxy  and  resinous  excretions  of  leaves,  flowers  and 
fruits ;  it  is  retained  by  trichomes,  etc.  Soil,  which  is  simply  a 
mixture  of  sand  particles  and  decayed  organic  matter,  clings  to  all 
subterranean  plant  organs.  From  these  considerations  it  becomes 
evident  that  some  sand  will  be  found  upon  many  crude  drugs 
and  mixed  with  the  po\yders  made  from  them,  as  there  is  no 
means  of  removing  it  entirely,  even  with  the  most  careful  washing 
and  winnowing.  We  would  naturally  expect  to  find  more  normal 
sand  with  the  powders  of  roots,  rhizomes  and  tubers ;  less  with 
barks,  and  still  less  with  most  herbs,  flowers  and  fruits.  It  should 
be  wanting  in  powders  of  peeled  barks,  of  woods,  of  peeled  roots, 
rhizomes,  tubers  and  seeds.  I  have  found  kamala  and  lupulin 
adulterated  with  considerable  quantities  of  fine  sand. 

2.  Dirt,  Clay,  Lime. — Not  infrequently  collectors  leave 
enough  dirt  attached  to  subterranean  plant  organs  as  to  amount 
to  adulteration,  as,  for  instance,  Mexican  sarsaparilla  and  many 
of  the  roots  and  rhizomes  collected  in  the  United  States.  Clay  is 
sometimes  added  to  powders  (goa  powder).  Lime  is  not  inten- 
tionally added,  but  it  will  be  found  in  powders  made  from  limed 
crude  drugs,  as  iris,  ginger  and  nutmeg. 


Adulteration  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  67 

J.  Pebbles,  Lead,  etc. — Such  substances  are  not  commonly 
employed,  and  are  nearly  always  added  to  crude  drugs.  Pebbles 
are  often  added  to  coffee  beans.  Shot,  pebbles,  lead  foil,  etc., 
have  been  found  in  the  interior  of  lumps  of  gum  opium.  Stones 
have  been  found  in  the  interior  of  bundles  of  sarsaparilla  and 
other  bundled  crude  drugs,  but  this  is  of  rare  occurrence. 

4.  Coloring  Substances. — The  desire  to  place  an  attractive 
article  upon  the  market  has  led  to  the  pernicious  habit  of  coloring 
certain  drugs.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  habit  of  liming, 
which  does  serve  some  useful  purpose  besides  giving  a  white 
color.  In  certain  parts  of  China  tea  is  quite  generally  colored 
with  indigo  and  Prussian  blue.  Coffee  beans  are  similarly  col- 
ored. Adulterants  are  often  colored  before  adding  them  to  the 
drug  in  order  to  simulate  the  normal  color.  In  some  countries 
the  little  cubes  of  different  kinds  of  medicinal  woods  are  variously 
colored. 

The  habit  of  coloring  drugs  for  the  purpose  of  simulating  a 
better  grade  of  the  article  should  be  looked  upon  as  criminal  adul- 
teration, even  if  the  coloring  substance  is  perfectly  harmless. 

IV.     The  Detection  of  Adulterations. 

The  ability  to  detect  adulterations  of  vegetable  drugs  will 
depend  upon  the  skill  and  training  of  the  pharmacist.  The  stu- 
dent must  acquire  the  ability  to  recognize  all  of  the  gross  charac- 
ters and  the  histological  characters  of  each  drug.  It  will  thus  be 
possible  for  him  to  recognize  the  absence  or  presence  of  foreign 
substances  without  the  least  difficulty. 

The  practicing  pharmacist  should  never  take  the  purity  of  an 
article  for  granted,  but  should  satisfy  himself  to  that  effect  per- 
sonally. Every  drug  as  soon  as  received  should  be  inspected 
carefully  to  determine  whether  or  not  it  is  the  drug  intended,  as 
some  mistake  may  have  been  made  in  packing,  labeling  and 
shipping,  though  that  is  of  rare  occurrence.     The  drug  should 


68  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

then  be  carefuly  examined  to  determine  its  purity  and  quality, 
and  in  order  to  do  this  the  pharmacist  must  be  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  characters  of  the  normal  drug.  We  have  elsewhere  re- 
ferred to  the  methods  of  examining  drugs  and  need  not  refer  to 
them  again.  If  the  drug  does  not  possess  the  qualities  of  a  first- 
class  article  it  should  be  returned  to  the  shipper  at  once,  with  a 
suitable  condemnation. 

In  the  case  of  powdered  drugs  the  matter  becomes  more  dif- 
ficult. The  intelligent  use  of  a  good  compound  microscope  is  ab- 
solutely necessary.  The  student  must  have  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  vegetable  histology.  He  must  have  the  ability  to  recog- 
nize the  normal  tissue  elements  in  order  that  he  may  recognize 
the  presence  of  foreign  elements.  The  recognition  of  the  adul- 
terant is  of  prime  importance ;  its  identity  is  of  little  significance 
in  most  instances.  In  many  cases  it  will  be  found  very  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  determine  the  identity  of  the  sophisticant. 
The  quantitative  determination  of  the  sophisticant  is  also  quite 
difficult.  Approximate  determinations  may  be  made  by  examin- 
ing a  number  of  slides  and  estimating  ocularly  the  comparative 
amount  of  adulterant  and  drug.  In  some  instances  the  adulterant 
is  detected  with  great  difficulty,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  ex- 
hausted powders,  winnowings,  etc.,  as  already  indicated.  Starches 
and  meals  are,  as  a  rule,  readily  detected,  with  the  exception  of 
rice  starch.  Rice  starch  consists  of  small  granules,  irregular  in 
form,  and  might  readily  be  overlooked  for  the  smaller  granules 
normal  to  the  powder,  unless  added  in  large  quantities. 

Sand  is  quite  readily  detected.  It  produces  a  very  character- 
istic gritty  sensation  under  the  cover-glass  and  to  the  teeth  when 
the  drug  is  tested  for  its  taste.  The  beaker  test  is  very  simple 
and  reliable.  Mix  a  known  quantity  of  the  powder  in  a  beaker 
of  water ;  the  powder  will  float  while  the  sand  will  settle  to  the 
bottom ;  decant  the  water  with  the  powder  repeatedly,  and  finally 
measure  and  weigh  the  sand  and  compare  with  the  quantity  of 
powder  used. 


Adulteration  of  Vegetable  Drugs.  69 

Nothing-  further  need  be  said  about  the  detection  of  inorganic 
adulterants.  In  the  following  chapter  are  given  some  sugges- 
tions on  the  microscopic  examination  of  vegetable  drugs,  which 
also  have  application  to  the  examiation  of  adulterated  material. 


/O  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs 


CHAPTER  V. 

The  Microscopical  Examination  of  Powdered  Veg:etable  Drugs. 
I.     Equipment  and  Methods. 

As  already  indicated,  the  identification  of  vegetable  drugs 
and  their  adulterants  will  depend  largely  upon  the  intelligent  use 
of  a  good  compound  microscope  and  the  necessary  accessories 
and  reagents.  It  is  further  evident  that  the  study  of  the  histology 
of  crude  drugs  is  a  necessary  preparation  to  the  study  of  these 
drugs  in  the  powdered  state.  In  the  powders  the  cells  and  cell' 
contents  appear  variously  intermingled  and  broken.  This  frag- 
mentary occurrence  of  tissue  elements  renders  their  identification 
more  difficult  as  compared  with  the  study  of  these  elements  as 
they  appear  in  carefully  prepared  sections  of  crude  drugs. 

Nothing  shall  be  said  of  the  methods  of  micro-technique  per- 
taining to  the  histologic  study  of  crude  drugs,  as  that  belongs  to 
the  course  in  vegetable  histology.  A  few  suggestions  on  the 
microscopic  examination  of  powdered  vegetable  drugs  will  be 
found  useful. 

As  already  indicated,  the  fineness  of  the  powders  varies 
greatly.  For  examination  under  a  compound  microscope  Nos. 
60  to  100  are  most  suitable.  No.  80  is,  perhaps,  the  fineness  best 
suited  in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  A  No.  100  is  generally  too 
fine  and  a  No.  60  is  somewhat  coarse.  Very  coarse  powders  must 
be  further  reduced  by  means  of  a  pestle  and  mortar.  For  low 
power  examinations  powders  from  40  to  60  fineness  are  very 
suitable. 

For  microscopic  examination  a  pinch  of  the  powder  is  mount- 
ed in  some  clearing  fluid.     Heat  may  be  employed  to  remove  air 


Examination  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.  71 

bubbles  and  to  increase  the  translucency.  The  student  is  at  first 
greatly  confused  by  the  optical  picture  which  presents  itself.  Cell- 
fragments  and  cell-contents  are  variously  intermingled  with  vari- 
ous cell-groups,  but  this  confusion  vanishes  with  experience  and 
with  the  knowledge  of  the  histologic  structure  of  plants.  With 
the  exception  of  very  fine  meals,  it  will  be  found  that  cells  occur 
in  groups,  the  number  of  cells  in  each  group  depending  upon  the 
fineness  of  the  powder  and  the  size  of  the  cells.  Bast  cells,  trich- 
omes,  tracheids,  wood  cells,  ducts  and  other  elongated  elements 
appear  in  longitudinal  view.  Tabular  elements,  as  epidermal 
cells,  appear  in  surface  view.  The  more  delicate  elements,  as 
meristem  cells,  leaf  parenchyma,  pith  cells,  ordinary  isodiametric 
parenchyma,  are  usually  pretty  well  broken.  Sclerenchyma  cells  are 
rarely  broken  and  belong  to  the  strikingly  characteristic  elements 
noticeable  in  powders ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  short  thick 
bast  cells  found  in  cinchona,  cinnamon  and  some  other  drugs. 
Hair  cells,  epidermal  cells  and  pollen  grains  are  quite  diagnostic. 
Glandular  structures  are  of  little  significance  in  the  examination 
of  powders,  as  they  are  usually  too  much  broken.  Cell-contents 
are  very  important,  especially  the  starches  and  the  crystals  of  cal- 
cium oxalate.  Starch  granules  usually  appear  entire,  likewise  the 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  excepting  the  large  prismatic  crystals, 
as  they  occur  in  scilla  and  a  few  other  drugs,  which  are  more  or 
less  broken  in  the  powdering. 

It  is  rarely  desirable  or  necessary  to  use  many  micro-chem- 
ical reagents  in  the  study  of  vegetable  powders.  An  intelligent 
use  of  a  few  suitable  clearing  fluids*  and  a  solution  of  chloriodide 
of  zinc  is  about  all  that  will  be  required.  To  hasten  the  clearing 
up  process  and  to  remove  air  bubbles  from  the  tissues  heat  should 
be  applied,  but  the  student  must  bear  in  mind  the  changes  that 
heat  produces  in  cell-contents,  as  starch  granules,  fats,  inulin  col- 
oring substances  and  some  other  contents.     Fortunately,  the  crys- 

*A    mixture    of    equal    parts  of  glycerin  and  water  will  be  found  tnast 
useful. 


72  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

tals  of  calcium  oxalate  remain  unaltered.  A  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  potassium  hydrate  and  sulphuric  acid  may  prove  useful 
as  some  drugs  give  characteristic  color  reactions  with  these  re- 
agents. Fehling's  solution  may  be  found  useful  in  developing 
the  sugar  reaction.  It  is  not  advised  that  the  student  should  at- 
tempt micro-chemical  tests  for  vegetable  alkaloids  and  glucocides, 
as  they  are  difificult,  unreliable  and  not  yet  carefully  worked  out. 

The  following  is  a  tabulation  of  the  color  reactions  of  the 
different  vegetable  elements  with  chloriodide  of  zinc.  A  drop  of 
the  reagent  is  to  be  added  to  the  section  or  pinch  of  powder  and 
examined  immediately  in  order  that  all  of  the  color  changes  may 
be  noted. 

I.     Cell-walls. 

1.  Cork. — No  reaction. 

2.  Epidermis,  not  suberized  or  lignified. — Reaction  as 

for  parenchyma. 

3.  Parenchyma. — A    gradual    change    from    reddish 

brown  to  deep  violet.  Reaction  may  require 
several  hours  to  develop  fully.  Reaction  due 
to  cellulose. 

4.  Bast. — As  for  parenchyma.     Reaction  more  rapid. 

5.  Collenchyma. — As  for  bast. 

6.  Sieve   tissue    or   phloem. — As    for   bast.     Reaction 

more  rapid. 

7.  Lignified  cells*   (tracheids,  vessels  or  ducts,  wood 

cells,  some  bast,  sclerenchyma  and  other  ligni- 
fied elements). — Reddish  brown  reaction, 
which  gradually  deepens.  Reaction  due  to 
lignin. 


*The  best  lignin  reaction  is  obtained  by  adding  a  drop  of  2  per  cent! 
alcoholic  solution  of  phloroglucin,  followed  by  a  drop  of  hydrochloric 
acid.     A  bright  red  reaction  develops  rapidly  in  all  lignified  elements. 


Examination  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


73 


II.     Cell-contents. 

I.  Starch. — As  for  parenchyma.  The  reaction  is, 
however,  so  rapid  that  the  reddish  brown  col- 
oration is  rarely  noticeable. 

Protoplasm  and  proteids. — Reddish  brown. 

Tannin  globules. — Reddish  brown. 

Laticiferous  fluid. — Wine  red. 

Amylodextrin  granules.-^Reddish  brown. 

Crystals. — No  reaction. 

Oils  and  fats. — No  reaction. 

Resin  and  waxes. — No  reaction. 

]\Iucilage  and  gums. — No  reaction. 

Sugar  and  inulin. — No  reaction. 

II.     Histology  of  Plant  Organs. 


2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 


The  following  suggestions  are  to  be  considered  carefully,  as 
a  rather  full  knowledge  of  those  tissue  elements  and  cell-contents 
which  are  most  likely  to  retain  their  individuality  after  powder- 
ing, or  which  will  prove  diagnostic,  will  simplify  the  work  of 
studying  and  identifying  vegetable  powders. 

I .     leaves. 

Under  this  head  are  included  leaves,  leaflets,  herbs,  and 
flowering  tops  in  which  leaves  predominate.  The  predominating 
color  of  leaves  when  powdered  is  green,  due  to  the  presence  of 
chrorophyll.  In  some  instances  the  color  merges  into  brown  or 
yellowish-brown,  as  in  pilocarpus. 

I.  Epidermal  Elements. — By  far  the  most  important  di- 
agnostic elements  of  the  leaf  are  the  epidermal,  inclusive  of  tri- 
chomes,  stomata  and  Nehenzellen^\  The  epidermal  elements 
being  the  more  resisting  parts  of  the  leaf  are  not  so  readily  re- 
duced in  powdering  and  appear  in  cell-aggregates  of  tabular  form 


*The  English  equivalent  is  neighboring  cells. 


74  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

presenting  mostly  a  vertical  view ;  rarely  one  may  also  find  frag- 
ments showing  the  epidermal  cells  in  profile  view.  Trichomes 
usually  appear  more  or  less  broken. 

2.  Upper  Epidermis. — Carefully  note  the  general  form  of 
the  cells  as  determined  from  an  examination  of  transverse  and 
tangential  (surface)  sections.  Make  careful  measurements  of 
normal  or  typical  cells,  remembering  that  epidermal  cells  over 
vascular  tissues  are  considerably  elongated.  The  outer  walls  of 
the  cells  or  cuticle  should  be  examined  in  transverse  view  to  note 
thickness  and  special  modifications,  resinous  or  waxy  deposits, 
etc.,  also  in  vertical  view  to  note  presence  or  absence  of  warty, 
linear  or  other  cuticular  markings,  which  may  prove  diagnostic. 
The  vertical  walls  may  be  straight  and  distinct,  somewhat  variable 
in  thickness.  More  rarely  porous  and  nodular  as  in  buchu.  In 
many  leaves  the  vertical  walls  are  wavy  instead  of  straight. 
The  comparison  of  straight  and  wavy  vertical  walls  is  occasion- 
ally diagnostic.  As  a  rule,  epidermal  cells  have  few  important  or 
diagnostic  contents.  Occasionally  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  are 
found ;  also  a  few  chlorophyll  granules.  They  may  contain  resin 
(pilocarpus),  inulin  and  hesperidin  (buchu),  also  a  small  amount 
of  starch,  tannin  and  coloring  matter.  In  brief,  note  carefully 
form  and  size  of  the  cells ;  thickness  of  cuticle,  cuticular  mark- 
ings ;   and  occasional  possible  diagnostic  cell-contents. 

J,  Trichomes  or  Hair-cells. — Trichomes  or  hair-cells  are 
very  important  and  diagnostic.  These,  more  than  any  other  ele- 
ments, are  the  means  of  identification,  especially  the  non-glandular 
hairs.  The  glandular  hairs  are,  as  a  rule,  small  and  delicate,  and 
their  identity  is  destroyed  and  lost  in  the  powdering.  The  non- 
glandular  hairs  are  divided  into  single  celled,  many  celled,  stellate 
or  aggregate  and  branching.  Study  them  carefully  as  to  length, 
diameter,  form  (curved,  inclined,  erect),  thickness  of  walls  and 
cuticular  markings,  rarely  also  color  and  contents  (Cannabis  In- 
dica).  Length  is  very  variable  in  different  plants — for  example, 
single-celled  trichomes  vaiy  from  mere  wart-like  outward  pro- 


Examination  of  Powdered  \'egetable  Drugs.  75 

jections  of  the  outer  walls  of  epidermal  cells,  as  in  coca  leaves  and 
anise  fruit,  to  the  long  (i  to  3  inches)  fibres  of  the  cotton  seed. 
The  many-celled  trichomes  also  differ  in  length,  but  vary  more 
diagnostically  in  width.  Occasionally  the  number  of  trichomes 
is  more  or  less  diagnostic  (Alexandria  and  India  senna).  Ag- 
gregate and  branching  hairs  are  very  striking  in  appearance  and 
hence  diagnostic. 

Each  hair-cell,  which  is  simply  a  modified  epidermal  cell,  is 
surrounded  by  epidermal  cells  (neighboring  cells)  which  gener- 
ally differ  somewhat  from  other  or  normal  epidermal  cells.  As  a 
rule,  they  are  somewhat  elongated  in  a  radial  direction  from  the 
hair-cells.  The  number  and  form  of  these  neighboring  cells  may 
be  diagnostic. 

In  the  case  of  glanular  hairs,  the  size  and  number  of  end  cells 
or  secreting  cells  may  be  diagnostic.  Under  this  group  must  also 
be  included  those  structures  more  specifically  designated  as  glands 
(kamala,  lupulin,  Grindelia  rohusta),  and  emergencies, 

4.  S tomato. — The  stomata  themselves  are  of  no  practical 
diagnostic  significance.  In  the  case  of  typically  dorsiventral  leaves 
they  are  wanting  in  the  upper  epidermis.  In  the  more  or  less 
isolateral  leaves  there  are  stomata  on  both  surfaces.  In  some  in- 
stances it  is  possible  to  distinguish  between  upper  and  lower  epi- 
dermis by  the  number  of  stomata.  The  size  and  form  of  the 
guard-cells  is  quite  uniform  in  the  different  species  of  plants.  In 
leaves  having  an  excessively  thickened  cuticle,  as  eucalyptus,  ficus 
and  others,  the  guard-cells  are  not  readily  observed.  Rarely  do 
these  cells  have  any  diagnostic  or  characteristic  contents ;  gener- 
ally they  contain  chlorophyll  and  occasionally  some  resin. 

5.  Neighboring  Cells. — While  the  stomata  themselves  pre- 
sent little  that  is  sig-nificant  in  the  identification  of  drugs,  the 
neighboring  cells  (Nehcn.-:eUcn)  present  some  very  striking  diag- 
nostic features,  and  they  should,  therefore,  be  studied  with  great 
care.  The  number  to  each  stoma  varies  from  two  to  five  or  six. 
In  India  senna,  for  example,  there  are,  as  a  rule,  two  cells,  one 


76  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

much  larger  than  the  other.  The  cells  may  contain  resin,  crystals 
and  other  substances  not  found  in  the  guard-cells  or  normal  epi- 
dermal cells.  The  cuticular  markings  may  be  ditiferent.  The 
form  of  the  outer  wall  may  be  different.  In  coca  leaves  they  do 
not  have  the  wart-like  projections  so  characteristic  of  the  normal 
epidermal  cells.  There  are  other  characteristics  not  referred  to 
here,  and  the  student  is  urged  to  study  these  elements  very  care- 
fully, as  the  histological  characters  give  promise  of  great  diag- 
nostic value. 

6.  Air  Chamber. — The  air  chambers  of  the  stomata  are  of 
no  significance.  As  a  rule,  the  cells  bounding  the  space  contain 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  usually  of  the  aggregate  form. 

7.  Hypodcrm. — Usually  a  hypoderm  is  wanting,  and,  when 
present,  is  rarely  of  importance  in  powders.  As  a  rule,  the  cells 
are  colorless,  empty  and  well  broken  in  the  powdering.  In  ficus 
and  other  plants  a  few  of  the  cells  contain  cystoliths.  In  buchu 
the  cell-walls  are  mucilaginous.  They  may  contain  crystals. 
The  cells  of  the  lower  hypoderm  are  usually  smaller  than  those 
of  the  upper.  Again,  the  lower  hypoderm  may  be  entirely  want- 
ing, as  in  buchu. 

8.  Palisade  Tissue. — This  tissue  is  rarely  of  any  significance 
in  powders,  as  the  cell-walls  are  delicate  and  well  broken.  They 
all  resemble  each  other  in  containing  an  abundance  of  chlorophyll. 
They  vary  considerably  in  length  and  in  transverse  diameter. 

p.  Spongy  Tissue. — The  cells  of  this  tissue  are  also  delicate 
and  readily  crushed.  They  vary  in  form  and  size.  Frequently 
they  contain  chlorophyll  and  aggregate  and  prismatic  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate.  They  may  contain  coloring  matter,  resin  and 
wax. 

10.  Stonc-CcUs. — Typical  or  well-defined  sclerenchyma  cells 
in  the  leaf  parenchyma  are  rare,  but  very  characteristic  when 
present,  as,  for  example,  the  large  branching  stone-cells  of  tea 
and  hamamelis.  There  are  other  mechanical  elements  associated 
with  the  leaf  blade,  but  none  are  of  any  apparent  diagnostic  value, 


Examination  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.  tj 

especially  in  powders,  as,  for  example,  the  mechanical  pillars  in 
eriodictyon  and  the  lateral  lines  or  ridges  of  coca. 

11.  Vascular  Tissue. — This  is  abundant  in  all  leaves,  but 
presents  no  diagnostic  features.  It  consists  of  ducts  (porous 
reticulate,  spiral  and  annular),  bast  and  tracheids. 

12.  Glands. — Though  common  and  often  containing  im- 
portant constituents  (eucalyptus,  buchu,  pilocarpus,  etc.),  they 
are  of  very  little  value  in  the  identification  of  powdered  vegetable 
drugs.  They  vary  in  size,  number,  position  and  abundance  ;  con- 
sistency and  color  of  contents.  The  contents  may  prove  of  diag- 
nostic value. 

ij.  Petiole  or  Leaf  Stalk. — The  petiole  rarely  presents  any 
characteristic  elements.  It  is,  histologically,  similar  to  the  stem 
or  branches,  but,  as  a  rule,  less  distinctively  defined.  The  paren- 
chyma cells  usually  contain  some  starch,  resin,  crystals,  coloring 
matter  and  other  contents  common  to  stems  of  the  same  plant. 
Stone-cells  or  sclerenchyma-like  tracheids  may  prove  diagnostic. 
There  may  be  cork  tissue  present.  The  vascular  tissue  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  leaf  blade. 

14.  Loiuer  Epidermis. — Compare  carefully  with  upper  epi- 
dermis. When  stomata  are  wanting,  it  indicates  the  upper  epi- 
dermis. 

2.     flowers. 

Flowers,  or  parts  of  flowers,  reduced  to  powder,  are  quite 
readily  recognized  or  identified,  since,  in  addition  to  certain  char- 
acteristic histological  elements  there  is,  as  a  rule,  a  distinctive 
color,  the  predominating  colors  being  brown,  yellow  or  yellowish, 
blue  and  red. 

I.  Staniinate  Elements. — The  vegetative  tissue  of  stamens 
is  not  characteristic  or  diagnostic  and  need  not  be  described  more 
fully.  The  important  elements  are  the  pollen  grains.  Carefully 
note  form,  size  and  external  markings  (exine).  They  may 
varv^  greatly  in  size,  but  the  difference  in  form  is  usually  more 


78  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

diagnostic.  They  may  be  triangular,  spherical  or  oval.  Note 
carefully  the  markings  of  the  exine.  The  predominating  color 
(exinc)  is  a  yellowish  brown.  The  pollen  grains  of  different 
flowers  from  the  same  family  or  order  usually  reseml)lc  each  other 
quite  closely.  Pollen  grains  may  cling  to  any  part  of  the  flower, 
and  are  even  found  with  pistillate  flowers  (Cannabis  IncUca,  bray- 
era).  The  number  of  pollen  grains  is  rarely  diagnostic.  If  con- 
siderable pollen  is  found  with  what  are  supposed  to  be  pistillate 
flowers,  as  Indian  hemp,  brayera  and  crocus,  it  may  indicate  adul- 
teration. 

2.  Pistillate  Elements. — These  are  not  characteristic  or  di- 
agnostic. The  cells  are  usually  parenchymatous,  small  and  thin- 
walled. 

J.  Petals. — Note  the  epidermal  elements  and  compare  with 
those  of  the  leaf.  Stomata  are  few  and  epidermal  cells  less  char- 
acteristic. Trichomes  are  less  common,  but,  where  present,  very 
diagnostic.  The  epidermal  cells  may  contain  diagnostic  coloring 
matter.  Parenchyma  and  vascular  tissue  usually  deficient  and 
not  important. 

4.  Sepals. — The  tissue  elements  and  cell-contents  of  sepals 
are  in  all  respects  similar  to  those  of  the  leaf. 

5.  Pappus. — These  structures  are  present  in  many  flowers 
(Compositas)  and  quite  important,  though  closely  similar  in  dif- 
ferent species. 

6.  Stone-cells  or  Sclerenchyma. — These  elements  are  often 
found.  They  may  be  derived  from  the  torus  (receptacle),  or,  in 
the  case  of  highly  matured  flowers,  from  the  seeds,  and  are  quite 
important  and  diagnostic. 

To  sum  up  briefly,  the  important  diagnostic  elements  of  flow- 
ers are  pollen  grains,  trichomatic  structures,  cell-contents  and  oc- 
casionally stone-cells.  Vascular  elements  are  not  very  abundant 
nor  specially  characteristic.  Parenchymatous  tissue  is  quite  typi- 
cal and  quite  free  from  starch  and  other  storage  substances.  Resin 
and  other  secondary  products  may  be  present.  The  student  should 
keep  in  mind  whether  a  part  or  the  entire  flower  is  used. 


Examination  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.  79 

3.      FRUITS   and   seeds. 

Fruits  and  seeds  are  placed  in  one  group,  because  any  at- 
tempt to  consider  them  separately  would  result  in  great  confusion. 
Furthermore,  the  terms  fruit  and  seed  are  very  loosely  applied ; 
in  one  instance  the  term  seed  is  applied  to  a  fruit  (fennel,  cara- 
way, coriander,  etc.),  in  another  instance  the  term  fruit  or  seed 
is  applied,  not  to  the  whole  organ,  but  to  a  part,  as  in  peeled  colo- 
cynth,  decorticated  pepper,  etc.  Histologically  it  would  be  prac- 
tically impossible  in  many  instances  to  distinguish  between  peri- 
carp and  seed  or  seeds. 

J.  Epidermal  Elements. — Those  of  the  pericarp  are,  in 
many  instances,  similar  to  those  of  leaf  or  stem,  and  such  a  com- 
parison should  be  kept  in  mind.  Trichomes  are  usually  non- 
glandular  and  diagnositic.  In  the  case  of  seeds  the  epidermal 
cells  undergo  remarkable  and  varied  modifications.  They  may 
be  trichomatic,  filamentous,  as  in  strophantus,  nux  vomica,  cotton 
seed  ;  gelatinized  and  palisade-like,  as  in  cydonia  ;  sclerenchyma- 
tous,  as  in  almond  seeds,  besides  other  peculiar  modifications. 
Owing  to  the  predominance  of  endosperm  tissue  epidermal  ele- 
ments are  sparingly  distributed  through  the  powder,  and  for  this 
reason  a  very  careful  study  is  necessary  to  find  the  sparingly  pres- 
ent, but  perhaps  very  diagnostic  elements. 

2.  Stone-Cells. — These  are  often  abundantly  present.  In 
form  they  vary  from  typical  to  elongated  bast-like,  as  in  pericarp 
of  Cassia  fistula  and  the  seeds  of  caffea.  In  color  they  vary 
from  deep  reddish-brown  to  nearly  colorless.  Usually  they  occur 
in  groups,  sometimes  singly  (almond,  pepo),  and  in  some  in- 
stances they  are  very  sparingly  present.  The  thickness  and  por- 
osity of  cell-walls  is  quite  variable  and  should  be  considered.  In 
some  instances  the  cell-wall  of  one  side  of  the  cell  is  thinner  than 
that  of  the  others. 

5.  Special  Tissues  of  Testa. — Most  of  these  special  tissues 
have  a  purely  mechanical  function.     Some  are  sclerenchymatous 


8o  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

(cydonia)  ;  some  carry  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate 
(bean).  Other  tissues  consist  of  thin-walled  cells  and  are  much 
broken  in  the  powders.  The  cells  may  vary  in  form ;  they  may 
be  tabidar,  elongated,  cubical  or  hour-glass  form.  They  are  rare- 
ly diagnostic. 

4.  Endosperm  Tissue. — This  is  essentially  parenchymatous 
and  constitutes  the  predominating  tissue  of  seeds.  The  cells  vary 
primarily  in  thickness  of  the  walls ;  also  in  porosity  and  the  nat- 
ure of  localized  thickenings.  As  to  form,  they  are  mostly  typical 
of  parenchyma;  they  may  be  rectangular,  elongated.  While  the 
variation  in  size  may  be  considerable,  it  will  be  found  that  this 
difference  proves  to  be  only  of  occasional  diagnostic  value.  The 
peripheral  cells  are,  as  a  rule,  smaller  than  the  more  internal  ones. 

The  cell-contents  should  be  studied  with  great  care.  Note 
especially  the  absence  or  presence  of  starch.  Be  careful  not  to 
confuse  proteid  granules  with  starch  granules  (almond,  croton 
and  castor  beans).  Look  for  resin-bearing  cells.  Oils  and  fats 
are  generally  present.  Occasionally  crystals  may  be  found.  Vas- 
cular tissue  is  quite  deficient  in  seeds  and  rarely,  if  ever,  diag- 
nostic. 

Oil  cells  and  resin  bearing  cells  may  occur  in  endosperm,  in 
pericarp  and  other  seed  and  fruit  parts.  These  are,  as  a  rule, 
very  diagnostic,  and  should  be  studied  carefully  as  to  number, 
size,  form  and  color  of  contents. 

5.  Parcncliyiua  of  Pericarp. — This  is  very  typical.  Com- 
pare with  parenchyma  of  roots  and  rhizomes.  Usually  the  cells 
are  quite  free  of  stored  food  substances.  They  may  contain  resin. 
Resin  glands  are  common  in  the  pericarp  of  many  fruits,  as  in 
the  umbelliferse.  They  may  be  large,  thin- walled  and  loosely 
united,  as  in  fleshy  fruits. 

4.       BARKS. 

The  medicinal  barks  present  many  striking  and  diagnostic 
histological  characteristics,  principally  due  to  the  relationship  and 


Examination  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.  8i 

variation  in  the  two  predominating  tissues  associated  with  the 
cork  tissue  (outer  bark)  and  bark  parenchyma,  namely,  bast  and 
sclerenchyma.  There  are  also  some  striking  cell-contents.  The 
predominating  color  of  the  powdered  bark  is  reddish-brown. 
Some  are  very  light,  as  ulmus  and  quillaia.  A  few  are  very  dark, 
as  juglans. 

There  is  no  reliable  means  of  distinguishing  between  root 
barks  and  stem  barks,  either  macroscopically  or  microscopically, 
especially  when  the  outer  bark  has  been  removed,  as  is  often  the 
case. 

1.  Outer  Bark  Parenchyma. — This  tissue  usually  consists 
of  typical  cork  cells  and  it  displaces  the  epidermis.  The  cells  may 
be  diagnostic  in  form  and  size.  They  may  contain  proteid  gran- 
ules, tannin  granules  and  reddish-brown  coloring  matter.  Also 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  (aggregate  and  prismatic).  This  tis- 
sue is  removed  in  peeled  barks,  as  ulmus,  quillaia,  cinnamons  and 
others. 

2.  Lent ic els. — These  never  present  diagnostic  characters  in 
powders.     The  cells  are  suberized  and  usually  empty. 

5.  Inner  Bark  Parenchyma. — This  dififers  from  the  outer 
parenchyma,  in  that  the  cells  are  less  typically  suberized  and  are 
more  characteristic  as  to  form  and  contents.  The  cells  are  usually 
loosely  united,  oval  to  somewhat  elongated ;  walls  colorless  and 
of  some  thickness.  Note  cell-contents  carefully.  Starch,  which 
is  present  in  variable  quantity,  is  rarely  diagnostic.  Crystals 
(mostly  calcium  oxalate)  are  quite  important.  The  acicular, 
prismatic  and  aggregate  forms  predominate.  Minute  crystals 
(crypto-crystalline)  occur  in  cinchona  and  cinnamons.  Resin- 
ous and  waxy  contents  may  prove  of  diagnostic  value,  also  col- 
oring matter,  mucilage,  etc.  Occasionally  the  outer  cell  layers 
of  this  tissue  become  more  or  less  collenchymatous. 

4.  Ducts  and  Glands. — These  are  of  no  significance  in  pow- 
ders.    The  contents  are  of  some  diagnostic  value. 

5.  Bast. — This  is  very  important.    Carefully  note  the  length 


82  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

and  diameter  of  cells  and  whether  they  occur  singly  or  in  groups. 
Note  porosity  and  thickness  of  cell  walls.  In  some  instances 
(cinchona,  cinnamons  and  others)  the  bast  cells  are  short  and 
thick,  approaching  the  character  of  sclerenchyma.  Again,  the 
cells  may  be  branching,  as  in  prunus  and  viburnum.  Contents  of 
bast  cells  are  rarely  diagnostic. 

6.  Crystal-bearing  Fibers. — These  accompany  the  bast 
fibers.  They  consist  of  rectangular,  thin-walled  cells  united  end 
to  end,  each  cell  bearing  a  prismatic  crystal  of  calcium  oxalate. 
Their  function  is  in  all  probability  mechanical,  giving  additional 
support  to  the  bast  fibers.  These  fibers  may  prove  of  great  diag- 
nostic value,  as  in  quebracho. 

7.  Sclerenchyma. — Sclerenchyma  cells  are  even  more  diag- 
nostic than  bast.  They  vary  in  form,  size  and  thickness  of  walls. 
They  may  occur  singly  or  in  groups.  They  are  mostly  typical — 
that  is,  approximately  isodiametric,  thick-walled  and  porous. 
Again,  they  may  be  rectangular,  elongated  or  branching.  Rarely 
is  the  color  and  lamellation  (coto)  characteristic.  In  some  in- 
stances (cinnamon)  the  walls  are  not  uniformly  thickened.  Con- 
tents of  sclerenchyma  cells  are  rarely  diagnostic.  Note  number, 
size  and  branching  of  pores. 

8.  Medullary  Rays. — This  tissue  is  very  prominent  in  some 
barks.  Note  number  of  cell  rows  and  size  of  cells,  porosity  of 
walls  ;   and  cell-contents,  as  starch,  resin,  crystals. 

9.  Epidermal  Tissue. — This  is,  of  course,  wholly  wanting 
in  the  older  barks,  having  been  displaced  and  pushed  ofif  by  the 
deeper  tissue.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  chlorophyll-bearing 
parenchyma  which  in  the  younger  branches  occurs  beneath  the 
epidermis. 

5.      ROOTS  AND  RHIZOMES. 

Roots  and  rhizomes  are  closely  similar  in  histological  struct- 
ure. In  the  powdered  state  there  is  no  reliable  means  of  distin- 
guishing between  them,  either  microscopically  or  macroscopically. 


Examination  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.  83 

The  color  of  the  powder  is  rather  variable.  The  predominating 
color  is  light  brown,  often  tinged  with  ash-gray,  but  there  are  ex- 
ceptions, as  the  deep  reddish-brown  of  rhatany  and  the  yellow  of 
licorice,  hydrastis  and  curcuma.  Some  are  very  light,  as  Iris 
Horcntiiia  and  althaea. 

1.  Epidermal  Elements. — These  are  usually  indistinct  or 
wanting ;  when  present  compare  with  those  of  the  leaf  and  stems, 
which  see.  Trichomes  are  quite  universally  absent.  Terminal 
rootlets  are  quite  generally  lost  in  collecting ;  hence,  hair-cells  are 
not  found.  Epidermal  cells,  when  present,  do  not  present  any 
special  diagnostic  features,  they  are  usually  suberized. 

2.  Cork. — Suberized  tissue  is  quite  generally  present  and 
displaces  the  epidermal  tissue.  As  a  rule,  it  presents  no  strikingly 
diagnostic  features  in  the  form  and  number  of  cells,  or  in  cell- 
contents.  The  cell-walls  are  quite  uniform  in  thickness  and  col- 
oration. 

5.  Parenchyma. — This  tissue  is,  as  a  rule,  quite  typical  and 
abundant.  The  cells  do  not  vary  greatly  in  size  and  thickness  of 
walls.  In  monocotyledonous  roots  and  rhizomes  they  are,  as  a 
rule,  considerably  elongated  in  the  long  axis  of  growth.  The 
peripheral  cells  are  tangentially  flattened  and  smaller  than  the 
more  centrally  located  cells. 

The  cell-contents  are  highly  important  and  diagnostic ;  above 
all,  the  starch  granules.  It  must,  however,  be  kept  clearly  in 
mind  that  the  pasty  starch  of  certain  drugs,  as  sarsaparilla,  cur- 
cuma and  others,  is  not  a  natural  product,  but  artificially  produced 
by  heat.  Such  starch  usually  occurs  in  lumps  of  the  dimensions 
of  the  cell-lumen  (curcuma)  ;  the  individual  granules  having  lost 
their  structural  characteristics  almost  entirely. 

Unmodified  granules  should  be  critically  studied  and  com- 
pared as  to  size,  form,  position  and  size  of  hilum,  distinctness  of 
lamellation,  etc.  Are  they  simple  or  compound?  Are  the  gran- 
ules free  or  do  they  form  aggregates?  If  compound,  do  the  gran- 
ules occur  in  twos,  threes  or  fours  ?    The  careful  study  of  starch 


84  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

granules  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized,  as  it  will  not  only  be 
valuable  in  the  identification  of  powders,  but  will  also  be  of  ines- 
timable value  in  the  recognition  of  starchy  or  starch-bearing  sub- 
stances which  are  quite  frequently  employed  in  sophistication. 

Parenchyma  cells  frequently  contain  crystals,  usually  of  cal- 
cium oxalate.  These  may  occur  as  fine  granules  (belladonna, 
stramomium,  dulcamara) ,  prismatic,  aggregate  and  acicular  crys- 
tals. The  aggregate  and  acicular  forms  vary  most  in  size.  They 
frequently  prove  of  great  diagnostic  value. 

Resin  and  mucilage-bearing  cells  are  often  diagnostic.  Note 
the  size  of  the  resin-bearing  cells  and  the  color  of  the  resin.  Cys- 
toliths  are  rare  (spigelia).  Wax-like  and  other  cell-contents  may 
occasionally  prove  diagnostic. 

Inulin  is  very  abundant  in  certain  plants  instead  of  starch, 
and  will,  therefore,  prove  very  diagnostic  in  comparison  with 
starch-bearing  organs. 

4.  Vascular  Tissue. — The  endoderm  cells  may  prove  diag- 
nostic (varieties  of  sarsaparilla).  They  should  be  carefully  ex- 
amined as  to  the  size  and  form  of  the  cells,  thickness  and  uni- 
formity of  the  cell-walls,  porosity  and  color  of  cell-walls  and 
nature  of  cell-contents.  The  ducts  will  frequently  prove  diag- 
nostic. Study  them  as  to  size  (diameter),  form  of  thickenings 
(porous,  scalariform,  reticulate,  spiral,  annular).  The  bast  and 
wood  elements  accompanying  the  vascular  bundles  vary  in  quan- 
tity. Sieve  tissue,  conducting  cells,  and  meristematic  tissues  are 
rarely  diagnostic.  The  parenchyma  of  the  vascular  bundle  is,  in 
most  respects,  similar  to  other  parenchyma.  Tracheids  may  prove 
diagnostic.  Study  them  carefully  as  to  size,  number  and  form  of 
pores,  etc.  In  some  instances  the  abundance  of  tracheids  and 
wood  elements  will  prove  diagnostic.  Note  carefully  the  medul- 
lary rays  and  cell-contents,  as  starch,  resin  and  crystals. 

5.  Laticifcrous  Ducts. — These  occur  in  a  number  of  vegeta- 
ble drugs,  and  will  be  of  considerable  diagnostic  value  to  the  care- 
ful observer. 


Examination  of  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs.  85 

6.  Pith. — This  is  usually  deficient  and  of  little  diagnostic 
value.  The  cells  are  usually  thin-walled,  typically  parenchyma- 
tous and  pretty  well  broken  in  powders.  Note  porosity  of  walls 
and  absence  or  presence  of  crystals  and  resin. 

6.     stems. 

There  are  only  comparatively  few  medicinal  stems.  They 
are  mostly  quite  woody,  and  some,  as  coniferous  stems,  have  the 
leaves  included. 

1.  Epidermal  Elements. — Usually  present,  and  should  be 
carefully  compared  with  those  of  leaves.  As  a  rule,  they  are  less 
abundant  and  less  characteristic. 

2.  Hxpoderm. — Usually  of  no  significance  (see  Leaf). 

5.  Chlorophyll-hearing  Parenchyma. — This  may  be  present, 
but  is  rarely  diagnostic. 

4.  Collenchyma. — When  quite  abundant  and  typically  de- 
veloped, it  will  prove  quite  diagnostic,  but  it  is  only  the  transverse 
view  of  long  cells  which  will  present  the  characteristic  appear- 
ance of  these  elements. 

5.  Bast. — See  "Roots  and  Rhizomes." 

6.  Parenchyma. — Cell-contents  less  abundant  and  usually 
less  characteristic  or  diagnostic  (see  Roots  and  Rhizomes). 

7.  Woody  Tissue. — This  is  usually  very  abundant  and  di- 
agnostic. Note  length,  diameter  and  porosity  of  elements.  Note 
medullary  rays  and  cell-contents. 

8.  Sclerenchyma. — Not  generally  present  (see  Barks). 

p.  Pith. — Usually  present,  but  not  specially  diagnostic.  Note 
cell  aggregations  (rosettes)  and  cell-contents,  as  resin,  mucilage, 
crystals  and  starch. 

10.     Vascular  Elements. — See  "Roots  and  Rhizomes." 

7.      WOODS. 

There  are  only  a  few  employed,  and  are  quite  characteristic 
in  color,  as  the  straw-yellow  quassia,  olive-green  guaiac,  red  san- 


86  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

dalwood,  purplish  hasmatoxylon  and  reddish-brown  sassafras. 

1.  Wood  Cells. — Note  diameter,  thickness  of  walls  and  con- 
tents, as  starch,  resin  and  crystals. 

2.  Ducts. — Note  presence  or  absence,  diameter,  porosity  and 
other  markings.     Often  diagnostic. 

J.  Medullary  Rays. — Important  and  often  diagnostic.  Note 
number  of  cell-rows,  porosity  and  cell-contents. 

8.      OTHER  PLANTS  AND  PLANT  PARTS. 

Under  this  head  are  included  ergot  and  corn  smut  (fungi)  ; 
dextrin  (modified  starch)  ;  kamala  (trichomes  and  glands)  ;  ly- 
copodium  (spores  of  club-moss)  ;  Iceland  moss  (lichen)  ;  Irish 
moss  (marine  alga)  ;  starches,  cereal  flour,  resin,  waxes,  gums, 
etc.,  etc.  These  must  be  studied  with  great  care  as  to  minute  de- 
tails of  structure. 


Key  to  Study  and  Identification.  Sj 


CHAPTER  VL 

Keys  to  the  Study  and  Identification  of  Powdered  Vegetable 

Drugs. 

The  keys  are  supplementary  to  each  other,  though  each  may 
also  be  used  independently  as  it  is  complete  in  itself.  They  have 
been  prepared  with  considerable  care  and  simplified  as  much  as 
possible.  Since,  as  has  been  repeatedly  stated,  the  recognition  of 
the  identity  of  a  vegetable  powder  is  primarily  dependent  upon  a 
careful  microscopical  examination,  it  becomes  evident  that  the 
key  based  upon  gross  characteristics  is  of  secondary  value.  It  is 
merely  an  aid  to  the  use  of  the  second  key.  To  illustrate :  A 
powder  has  the  consistency,  color,  odor  and  taste  of  coto  bark.  It 
will  be  only  after  a  careful  microscopical  examination  that  its  ab- 
solute identity  and  purity  is  established. 

I.     Key  Based  Upon  Gross  Characteristics. 

This  key  will  prove  a  help  to  the  study  of  powders  by  those 
who  do  not  have  a  compound  microscope  to  aid  them.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  major  divisions  are  based  upon  color,  and  for  that 
reason  is,  in  many  instances,  defective  or  confusing,  because  of 
the  variation  in  colors,  as  has  been  explained  elsewhere.  Pow- 
ders fade  quite  rapidly,  even  if  well  kept  in  the  dark.  It  should 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  odors  and  tastes  cited  refer  to  crude 
drugs.  Powdering  does,  of  course,  not  have  any  effect  upon  the 
quality  of  the  odor,  but  quantitatively,  the  odors  in  particular, 
lessen  very  rapidly.  To  a  somewhat  lesser  degree  this  applies, 
also,  to  tastes.     The  following  suggestions  may  prove  useful.     If 


88 


Powdered  Vecetable  Drugs. 


the  odor  is  abnormally  weak  it  may  be  safely  concluded  that  the 
powder  is  old,  or  that  it  has,  perhaps,  been  adulterated  with  some 
odorless  substance.  If  the  taste  is  abnormally  weak  the  addition 
of  some  tasteless  adulterant  may  be  suspected.  In  comparatively 
rare  instances  adulterations  may  be  indicated  by  qualitative  differ- 
ences in  odor  as  well  as  taste.  These  suggestions  will  prove  of 
value  only  to  those  who  have  the  ability  to  recognize  the  normal 
odors  and  tastes  of  crude  drugs  and  recently  powdered  drugs. 

VERY  LIGHT  TO  WHITE: 

Odorless. 
Sweetish. 


Pure  white,  crisp. 

Amylum. 

Brownish,  very  mobile. 

Dextrine. 

Mucilaginous,  brownish 

Scilla. 

Very  bitter. 

Somewhat  pungent ;    grayish. 

Colchicuin. 

Not  pungent ;    yellowish. 

Colocynth. 

Pungent,  astringent  (sneezing). 

Quillaia. 

Odor. 

Faintly  fragrant. 

Sweetish,    mucilaginous. 

Althara. 

Bitterish,  somewhat  pungent. 

Iris  a  or. 

Fernugreek  odor,  very  mucilaginous. 

Uhnus. 

Almond  odor,  sweetish,  bitterish. 

Amygdala. 

YELLOW   OR   DISTINCTLY    YELLOWISH. 

Odorless  or  odor  faint  and  not  characteristic. 

Tasteless ;    very  mobile. 

Lycopodium. 

With  taste. 

Bitter. 

Saliva  colored  yellow. 

Sweetish. 

Frangnla. 

Not  sweetish. 

Berber  is. 

Saliva  not  colored. 

Sweetish. 

Gentian  > 

Not  sweetish. 

Dull  yellow. 

Calumha 

Brown  yellow. 

Pareira 

Lemon  yellow. 

Hydrastis. 

Straw  yellow. 

Quassia. 

Key  to  Study  and  Identification.  89 

Astringent. 

Pale  yellow.  Granatum. 

Yellowish  brown.  Rumex. 

Pungent.     (Odor  when  moist.)  Sinapis  alb. 
With  odor. 

Fragrant;  narcotic.  Calendula. 

Hop   odor.     Bitter.  Lupulin. 
Aromatic. 
Bitter. 
Somewhat  pungent. 
Pale  yellow.                                                                  Pyrethruni  Hor. 

Deep  orange  yellow.  Curcuma. 

Astringent.  Rheum. 

Not  bitter;    very  pungent.  Zingiber. 

Very  sweet.     Odor  faint.  Glycyrrhiza.'^ 

RED  OR  DISTINCTLY  REDDISH. 

Odorless.  ! 
Tasteless. 

Small  wood  fibres  present.  Santalum  rub. 

No  fibrous  tissue.     Sandy.  Kamala. 
With  taste. 

Very  pungent.  Sanguinaria. 

Very  astringent.  Geranium. 

With  odor. 

Hop  odor.     Bitter.  Lupulin. 

Characteristic  odor,  recalling  iodoform.  Crocus. 

Faintly  aromatic. 

Bitter;  astringent.  Guarana. 

Very  astringent.  Krameria.' 

Slightly  sweetish  and  astringent.     Saliva  red.  Haematoxylon. 

VERY  DARK  TO  BLACK. 

Odorless. 
Tasteless 
Dull  black.  Vegetable  charcoal. 

Lustrous  black.  Animal  charcoal. 

Bitter,  pungent  (faintly  aromatic).  Juglans. 

With  odor. 
Aromatic.     Odor  of  each  drug  very  characteristic. 
Very  pungent.     Clove  odor   (dark  brown).  Caryophyllus. 


90 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


NoC  pungent.     Bitterish,  astringent. 
Sweetish. 
Not  sweetish. 

GRAY  TO  DARK  GRAY,  WITH   BROWNISH  TINT. 

Odorless  or  odor  faint. 

Pungent  and  bitter  (faint  heavy  odor). 
Sweetish    (faint  heavy  odor). 
Quite  pungent. 
Quite  bitter. 
Pungency  faint. 
Soil  odor. 
No  soil  odor. 
Not  sweetish. 
Very  astringent. 
Pungent. 
Astringent,  saliva  foamy. 
Sweetish. 
Benumbing  effect. 
Bitter. 

Extremely  bitter ;    granular. 
Moderately  bitter,  fibrous. 
With  odor. 

Peculiar  odor,  sweetish  pungent. 
Aromatic,  pungent. 
Mottled  dark  gray. 
Light  gray 

GREEN   OR  GREENISH. 

Deep  olive  green. 
Not  olive  green. 
Odor  heavv,  narcotic,  nauseous. 
Bitter  or  bitterish. 
Somewhat  pungent. 
D^ep  green. 
Brownish  pale  green. 
Not  pungent. 
Bright  green. 
Pale  green. 
Brownish  green. 
Pungent. 


Roasted  cichorium. 
Roasted  caffca. 


Ipecac. 

Ciinicifuga. 

Colchicum. 

Cypripcdium. 

Sarsaparilla. 

Belladonna. 

Vcratnon  viride. 

Gal  la. 

Quillaia. 

Hydrangea. 

Aconite. 

Nux  vomica. 
Mcnispcnnum. 

Ergot. 

(black)  Piper, 
(white)  Piper. 


Guaiacum. 


Belladonna. 
Hyoscyamus. 

Digitalis. 

Stramonium. 

Cannabis  Ind. 

Lobelia. 


Key  to  Study  and  Identification. 


91 


Odor  pleasant,  fragrant. 

Bitter  or  bitterish. 

Astringent. 

Saline. 

Achillea. 

Not  saline. 

Odor  peculiar,  faint. 

Caffea. 

Odor  tea-like. 

Brownish  green. 

Very  astringent. 

Hamamclis. 

Slightly  astringent. 

Eupatorium. 

Dark  green. 

Thea. 

Pungent. 

Greenish  brown. 

Arnica. 

Green. 

Matico. 

Sweetish. 

Scutellaria. 

Somewhat   mucilaginous. 

Senna. 

Pungent,  sweetish   (numbness). 

Aconite. 

Astringent. 

Castanea. 

Odor  camphoraceous,  terebinthine. 

Mint-like,  peculiar. 

Buchu. 

Aromatic,  not  mint-like. 

Eucalyptus. 

Odor  peculiar,  ant-like. 

Melissa. 

Nearly  odorless,  slightly  pungent  and  benumbing. 

Coca. 

LIGHT   BROWN. 

Odorless. 

Tasteless ;   very  mobile. 

Lycopodiiim. 

With  taste,  not  very  mobile. 

Bitter. 

Extremely  bitter. 

Very  light  color. 

Colocynth. 

Pale  straw  yellow. 

Quassia. 

Moderately  bitter. 

Fibrous. 

Yellowish. 

Populus. 

Grayish. 

Chamaclirium. 

Not  fibrous. 

Bryonia. 

Bitter  pungent. 

Sweetish. 

Taste  faint. 

Mealish.   grayish. 

Belladonna. 

Not  mealy,  yellowish. 

Convallaria. 

92 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Bitter  taste  marked. 
Very   light   brown. 
Grayish. 
Yellowish  tinge. 
Not  sweetish. 
Very  mucilaginous. 
Not  mucilaginous. 
Very  pungent. 
Very  bitter. 

Very  light  color. 
Brownish. 
Fibrous. 
Not  fibrous. 
Pungent. 
Extremely  pungent,  fibrous. 
Moderately  pungent. 
Benumbing  effect. 
No  benumbing  effect. 
Bitter  astringent,  fibrous. 
Reddish  tinge. 
Not  reddish 
Brownish. 
Very  astringent. 
Moderately  astringent. 
Grayish. 
Pungent  astringent. 
With  odor. 

Aromatic,  spicy. 
Pungent. 
Bitter. 
Very  light  color. 

Not  very  light,  odor  terebinthine. 
Odor  faint. 
Odor  marked. 
Light  straw  yellow 
Not  bitter. 
Very  spicy. 
Not  very  spicy. 
Peculiar  hop  odor,  bitter. 
Light  brown. 
Dirty  yellowish  brown. 


Euonymus. 
Podophyllum. 
Caulophyllum. 

Scilla. 

Xanthoxylum. 

Asclepias. 

Leptandra. 
Colchicum. 

Mezerion. 

Aconite. 
Phytolacca. 

Salix. 


Quercus. 

Granatum. 

Rtibus. 

Gossypium. 


Calamus. 

Inula. 
Asarum. 
Canella. 

Zingiber. 
Pyrethrutn. 

Htimulus. 
Lupulin. 


Key  to  Study  and  Identification. 


93 


Nauseous,  heavy  or  disagreeable  odor. 
Bitter. 
Sweetish,  mucilaginous. 
Not  sweetish  or  mucilaginous. 
Grayish. 
Not  grayish. 
Very  bitter. 
Moderately  bitter. 
Bitter  pungent. 
Sweetish. 
Not  sweetish. 
Pungent. 
Sweetish. 
Not  sweetish. 
Bitter  sweet. 
Fragrant,  pleasant. 
Bitterish. 
Mucilaginous. 
Sweetish. 
Not  sticky. 
Sticky,  resinous. 
Bitter  pungent. 
Sticky,   resinous. 
Not  sticky. 
Odor  peculiar,  characteristic. 
Smoky;  sweetish,  pungent. 
Strong  odor ;  bitter,  mucilaginous. 
Soil  odor,  faint. 
Disagreeable  odor;    bitterish. 
Sweetish. 
Not  sweetish. 

BROWN    TO   REDDISH   BROWN. 

Odorless  or  odor  faint. 
Bitter. 

Very   bitter. 
Brown. 

Reddish  brown. 

Yellow  brown. 

Moderately  bitter. 

Saliva  yellow. 

Sweetish. 

Not  Sweetish. 


Lappa. 

Apocynum. 

Strophantus. 
Gelsemium. 

Cypripedium. 

Hyoscyatnus. 

Senega. 

Lobelia. 

Dulcamara. 

Sainbucus. 

Eriodictyon. 
Spigelia. 

Grindelia. 
Aurantium. 

Jalapa. 

Fenugreek. 

Sarsaparilla.i. 

Taraxacum. 
Cichorium. 


Chirata. 

(red)   Cinchona. 

(yellow)   Cinchona. 


Frangula. 
Rhamnus  Pursh. 


94 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Saliva  not  yellow 
Light  vcllowish  brown. 
Cinnamon  brown 
Bitter  astringent. 
Sweetish. 
Not  sweetish. 
Very  astringent. 
Moderately  astringent. 
Astringent. 

Somewhat  fragrant,   reddish  brown. 
Not  fragrant,  dull  brown. 
Sweetish ;    mobile. 
Very  pungent. 
Reddish  brown. 
With  odor.     Brown. 
Aromatic,  spicy. 
Pungent. 
Sweetish. 
Bitterish. 
Astringent. 
Not   astringent. 
Not  bitter. 
Not  sweetish. 
Bitterish. 
Odor  faint. 
Delicate  nutmeg  odor. 
Nutmeg  odor. 
Not  bitter.     Dark  color. 
Bitter  pungent. 
Bitter,  very  astringent. 
Fragrant. 

Bitter  astringent. 
Odor  marked. 
Odor  faint. 
Bitter  pungent. 
Tea-like  odor. 
Odor  recalling  gaultheria. 
Bitter;    odor  faint. 
Heavy  or  disagreeable  odor. 
Valerian  odor. 
Bitter. 
Bitter  astringent. 


Pareira. 
Aspidospcrma. 

Chiiiiaphila. 

Rhus  glabra. 
Coniiis. 

Arcca. 

Geranium. 

Dextrine. 

Sanguiitaria. 
Sinapis. 


Sassafras. 

Goto.    Paracoto. 

Ginnamons. 


Pilocarpus. 

Mace. 

Myristica. 

Garyophyllus. 

Gas  car  ilia. 

Rumcx. 


Theobroma. 
Guarana. 

Gusso. 

Arnica  H. 

Gentian. 


Valerian. 
Viburnum  prun. 


Key  to  Study  and  Identification.  95 


Heavy,  nauseous. 

Very  bitter. 

Pale  brown. 

Strophantus. 

Brown. 

Scoparius. 

Bitter  pungent. 

Stillingia. 

Peculiar  odor,  very  pungent. 

Capsicum. 

Characteristic  odors. 

Anise  odor,  very  marked. 

Yellowish  brown. 

Anise. 

Reddish  brown. 

Illicium. 

Fenugreek  odor. 

Iris  vers. 

Mouse  odor  with  alkalies. 

Conium. 

Smoky  odor,  not  marked. 

Very  astringent. 

Kramer  ia. 

Not  astringent. 

Jalapa. 

Garlic  odor  when  moist. 

Sinapis  nig. 

Wild  cherry  bark  odor.     Almond 

odor. 

Prunus  serot. 

II. — Key  Based  Upon  Histological  Characteristics. 

The  histological  characters  given  apply  to  the  pure  powders 
only,  hence  caution  must  be  observed  where  adulteration  is  sus- 
pected. 

The  keys  will  be  found  especially  useful  as  a  guide  to  the 
critical  examination  of  vegetable  powders.  Each  student  should 
identify  from  fifteen  to  twenty  unknowns  by  the  use  of  these 
keys  alone.  To  do  so  it  will  be  absolutely  necessary  to  study  the 
gross  as  well  as  the  microscopic  characteristics  thoroughly.  At 
the  completion  of  such  work  the  student  will  be  surprised  to  find 
how  firmly  the  characteristics  studied  have  impressed  themselves 
upon  his  mind. 

I.IGXIFIED    ELEMENTS     (VESSELS,    TRACHEIDS,     SCLERENCHYMA,    ETC.)     PRESENT. 

Epidermal  elements  {trichovies,  stomata,  ete.)  present. 
With  pollen  grains. 
Trichomes  wanting. 

Pollen  grains  spherical.  GrindcUa   robusta. 

Pollen  grains  not  spherical. 

Triangular,  mostly  imperfect.  Caryophyllus. 

Oval,  quite  large.  Chirata. 


96 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Trichomes  present. 

Single  celled. 

Pollen  oval. 

Scoparius. 

Pollen  spherical. 

Stone  cells  present. 

Pyrctliru)n. 

Stone  cells  wanting. 

Bray  era. 

Many-celled. 

Pollen  oval. 

Scutellaria. 

Pollen  spherical. 

Yellow  coloring  matter  present. 

Calendula. 

Yellow  coloring  matter  wanting. 

Pappus  present. 

Numerous  yellow  glands. 

Eupatorium. 

Without  yellow  glands. 

Arnica  flor. 

Pappus  wanting. 

Achillea. 

Pollen  wanting. 

Trichomes  wanting  or  few. 

Stone  cells  present. 

Stomata  present. 

Guard  cells  indistinct,  cuticle  thick. 

Eucalyptus. 

Guard  cells  distinct. 

Sabina. 

Stomata  wanting  or  few. 

Areca. 

Stone  cells  wanting. 

Stomata  few  or  wanting. 

Epidermal  cells  vertically  elongated. 

Fenugreek. 

Epidermal  cells  normal,  tabular. 

Hypoderm  colorless. 

Sinapis  alba.- 

Hypoderm  reddish  brown. 

Sinapis  nigra. 

Stomata  present. 

Vertical  epidermal  walls  wavy. 

Cuticle  thick. 

Chimaphila. 

Cuticle  thin. 

Lactuca. 

Vertical  epidermal  walls  not  wavy. 

Epidermal  cells  with  inulin. 

Buchu. 

Epidermal  cells  without  inulin. 

Lower  epidermal  cells  papillar. 

Coca. 

Lower  epidermal  cells  not  papillar. 

Uva  ursi. 

Trichomes  present. 

Aggregate   (stellate)  trichomes. 

Glandular  hairs  present. 

Castanea. 

Glandular  hairs  wanting. 

Hamamelis. 

Key  to  Study  and  Identification. 


97 


Single  celled  trichomes. 
Sclerenchyma  present. 
Few,  large,  branching.  Thea. 

Sclerenchyma  normal,  hair  cells  few. 

Stomata  numerous.  Pilocarpus. 

Stomata  few,  oil  present.    .  Pimcnta.. 

Sclerenchyma  wanting. 
Stomata  present. 
Trichomes  wavy.  long,  slender.  Eriodictyon. 

Trichomes  not  wavy. 
Hair  cells  with  cystoliths.  Cannabis  Ind. 

Hair  cells  without  cystoliths. 
Yellow  glands  present.  Hurnulus. 

Yellow  glands  wanting. 
Trichomes  medium,  few. 

Nebenzellen,  usually  two.  Senna  Ind. 

Nebenzellen,  usually  4  to  5.  Senna  Alex. 

Trichomes  large. 

Stomata  large.  Aconite. 

Stomata  medium.  Lobelia. 

Stomata  few  or  wanting. 

Trichomes  few,  tracheids  numerous.  Dulcamara. 

Trichomes  numerous. 
Long,  slender. 

Endosperm  cells  thick-walled.  Nux  vomica. 

Endosperm  cells  thin-walled.  Strophantus. 

Short. 
Thick-walled   parenchyma.  Anise. 

Thin-walled  parenchyma,  Chinese   Galla. 

Many  celled  trichomes. 
Stone  cells  present. 
Trichomes  bright  red.  Rhus  glabra. 

Trichomes  not  red. 

Reddish-brown  cell  contents.  Cacao. 

No  brown  cell  contents.  Turnera. 

Stone  cells  wanting. 
Vertical   epidermal   walls   straight.  Matico. 

Vertical  epidermal  walls  wavy. 

Wood  elements  plentiful.  Arnica. 

Wood  elements  normal,  epidermal  cells  plentiful. 


98  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

Amorphous  calcium  oxalate. 

Linear    cuticular    marking.  Belladonna. 

Without  linear  markings.  Hyoscyamus. 

No  amorphous  calcium  oxalate. 
Trichomes  compp.ratively  numerous,  medium.  Digitalis. 
Trichomes  few,  large.  Stramonium. 

Trichomes  very  numerous,  long,  slender.      Marrubium. 
Epidermal  elements  wanting. 
Sclerenchyma. 
Bast  present. 
With  acicular  crystals   (raphides.) 

Compound  starch  "ranules.  Sarsaparilla. 

Simple  starch. 
Large  brown  bast  cells.  Chamaelirium. 

Bast  medium.  Hydrangea. 

True  raphides  wanting. 
Large  short  bast  cells. 
Starch  quite  plentiful. 

Sclerenchyma  cells  comparatively  small. 

Spaigon  and  Cassiu  Cinnamon. 
Slerenchyma  cells  larger.  Ceylon  Cinnamon. 

Starch  sparingly  present. 
Bast  lined  with  prismatic  crystals.  Quebracho. 

Bast  not  lined  with  crystals. 

Mucilage  cells   present.  Sassafras. 

Mucilage   cells    wanting.  Bcrberis   bark. 

Bast  medium  in  thickness  and  length. 

Scalariform  ducts ;    large  compound  starch  granules. 

Methysticum. 

Ducts  wanting. 

Sclerenchyma  unevenly  thick.  Cascarilla. 

Sclerenchyma  or  bast  branching. 
Bast  plentiful.  Viburnum  op. 

Bast  cells  few.  Viburnum  prun. 

Sclerenchyma  typical. 

Crystal  bearing  fibers  numerous. 
Sclerenchj^ma  cells  in  groups. 
Collenchymatous  parenchyma.  Rhamnus  pursli. 

No  collenchymatous  tissue. 
Large  wax   cells.  Xanthoxylum. 

No  wax  cells.  Myrica  bark. 


Key  to  Study  and  Identification. 


99 


Sclerenchyma  cells  mostly  single. 

Bast  plentiful. 

Populus. 

Bast  sparing. 

Large  simple  granules. 

Menispermum. 

No  starch. 

Punka  (bark). 

iast  wanting  (or  sparingly  present.) 

Starch  plentiful. 

Pasty. 

Epidermal  elements  present. 

Guarnna. 

Epidermal  elements  wanting. 

Curcuma. 

Simple  granules. 

Aggregate  crystals  present,  large. 

Rumex. 

Aggregate  crystals  wanting. 

Starch  granules  very  large. 

Calumba. 

Starch  granules  medium. 

Menispermum. 

Compound  granules. 

Sclerenchyma  in  groups. 

Asclepias  tub. 

Sclerenchyma  sparingly  present. 

Raphides   present. 

Veratrum. 

Raphides  wanting. 

Parenchyma  large. 

Aconite. 

Parenchyma  medium. 

Pareira  (root). 

Starch  sparingly  present  or  wanting. 

Sclerenchyma  and  bast  branching. 

Prunus. 

Sclerenchyma  not  branching. 

Inulin  present. 

Pyrethrum. 

Inulin  wanting. 

Parenchyma  large,   thin-walled. 

' 

Crystals  present. 

Aleppo  Galla. 

Crystals   wanting. 

Colocynth. 

Parenchyma  medium  in  size. 

Walls  thin. 

Sclerenchyma  deep  red. 

Phytolacca. 

Sclerenchyma  not  red. 

Piper. 

Walls  not  thin. 

Sclerenchyma  elongated. 

Yellow  resin. 

Goto  (bark). 

No  yellow  resin. 

Caffea. 

Sclerenchyma  not  elongated. 

Sclerenchyma  single  celled. 

Amygdala. 

Sclerenchyma  in  groups. 

100 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Crystals  present. 
Yellowish  wax  present. 
Simple   starch. 
Compound  starch. 
Wax  wanting. 
Crystals  wanting. 

Sclerenchyma  cells  unevenly  thick. 
Sclerenchyma  cells  uniform. 
Sclerenchyma  wanting. 
Bast  present. 
Starch  plentiful. 
Acicular  crystals. 
Small  aggregate  starch,  spiral  ducts. 


Canella. 

Rhus  glab. 

Cornus. 

Hyoscyamus. 
Cubeba. 


Cypripedium. 


Large,  simple  granules,  no  spiral  ducts.         F 

'hytolacca    (root). 

Acicular  crystals  wanting. 

Large  reticulate  ducts. 

Numerous  prismatic  crystals. 

Glycyrrhiza. 

Numerous  aggregate  crystals. 

Stillingia. 

No  large  reticulate  ducts. 

Starch  simple. 

Large  porous  ducts. 

Rubus   (bark). 

Ducts  medium. 

Porous. 

Euonymus. 

Reticulate. 

A  Ithaea. 

Yellow  tracheids. 

Hydrastis. 

Starch  compound. 

Bast  plentiful,   typical. 

Gossypium. 

Numerous  porous  tracheids. 

Kramcria. 

Starch  sparingly  present. 

Bast  cells  very  large  (thick,  short). 

Cinchona. 

Bast  cells  medium. 

Large  porous  ducts. 

Parenchyma  cells  wanting. 

Quassia. 

Parenchyma  present. 

Gclscmium. 

Large  ducts  wanting. 

No   crystal-bearing  fibres. 

Mczereon. 

With  crystal-bearing  fibres,  bast  plentiful. 

Numerous  aggregate  crystals. 

Sali.v. 

Aggregate  crystals  few. 

Piscidia. 

Key  to  Study  and  Identi?icatjon. 


lOI 


Sclerenchyma  and  bast  wanting. 

No  starch. 

Inulin  present. 

Ducts  large. 

Reticulate. 

Taraxacttm. 

Porous. 

C  ichor  ium. 

Ducts  medium,  reticulate. 

Cell-walls  uneven,  wavy. 

Inula. 

Cell-walls  not  wavy. 

Lappa. 

Inulin  wanting. 

Ducts  or  tracheids  numerous. 

Parenchyma  cells  large,   ducts  reticulate. 

Red  cell  contents. 

Iris  vers. 

No  red  cell-contents. 

Gentian. 

Parenchyma  medium. 

Cystolitlis. 

Spigelia. 

Oily  cell-contents. 

Senega. 

Ducts  or  tracheids  few. 

Numerous  prismatic  crystals. 

Citrus  vulg. 

No  crystals,  oil  globules. 

Capsicum. 

Starch  present. 

Simple. 

With  crystals. 

Acicular. 

Very  large. 

Iris  Aor. 

Small  (raphides). 

Convallaria. 

Aggregate,  quite  large. 

Geranium. 

Crystals  wanting. 

Starch  pasty. 

Curcuma. 

Starch  not  pasty. 

Parenchyma  cell-walls  thick,  oil. 

Colchium  (seed). 

Parenchyma  cell-walls  not  thick. 

Ducts  reticulate. 

Starch  granules  large. 

Yellow  resin. 

Ginger. 

No  yellow  resin. 

Sumbul. 

Starch  granules  medium  to  small. 

Parenchyma   spongy. 

Calamus^ 

Parenchyma  not  spongy,  red  color. 

Sanguinaria. 

lOZ 


PowoERED  Vegetable  Drugs 


Tracheids  or  porous  ducts. 
Large  porous  ducts. 
Ducts  or  tracheids  medium. 
Parenchyma   porous. 
Not  porous. 
Red  contents. 
No  red  contents. 
Compound. 

With  crystals. 
Amorphous  powder. 
Aggregate  large. 
Raphides 
No  crystals. 
Ducts  very  large,  reticulate. 
Ducts  or  tracheids  medium,  some  spiral  ducts 
Starch  plentiful,  not  aggregate. 


Resin    cells. 
No  resin  cells. 

Starch  mostly  compound 
Starch  mostly  simple. 
Starch  granules   small,   aggregate. 
Spiral  ducts,   with  crystals. 
No  spiral  ducts. 

LIGNIFIED   ELEMENTS    WANTING   OR    VERY    SPARINGLY    PRESENT 

Starch  present. 
Not  dextrinized. 
Dextrinized. 
No  starch  present. 

With  trichomes   (aggregate). 
No  trichomes. 

Small,  cylindrical,  irregular  elements. 
Elements  not  cylindrical. 
Yellow  pear-shaped  glands. 
Yellowish,  spheroidal  or  triangular  spores. 


Apocynum  can. 

Serpentaria. 

Leptandra. 
Cimicifuga. 


Belladonna-. 

Rheum. 

Ipecac. 

Bryonia  alb. 


Asarum. 


Colchicum  (corm). 
Valerian. 

Podophyllum. 
Caulophyllum. 


Amylum.* 
Dextrinum. 

Kamala.'t 

Ergot. 

Lupulin. 
Lycopodium. 


*Under  "amylum"  is  included  the  various  commercial  starches  and  the 
cereal  meals  and  various  commercial  products  rich  in  starch,  as  macaroni, 
sphagetti,  sago,  etc. 

tQuite  generally  adulterated  with  starch  and  sand. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  103 

PART  II. 

Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  student  will  keep  the  following  introduc- 
tory suggestions  in  mind,  as  they  will  aid  very  materially  in  the 
effective  application,  in  drug  examination,  of  the  special  descrip- 
tions given. 

The  vegetable  powders  described  are  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order  for  convenience  of  study  and  cross  reference.  Those 
marked  U.  S.  are  official  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  1900,  which  will 
be  issued  soon.  Those  marked  (U.  S.,  1890)  were  official  in  the 
Pharmacopoeia  of  1890,  but  are  to  be  excluded  from  the 
issue  of  1900.  Upon  comparing  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  1890  with 
the  next  issue,  it  will  be  found  that  forty-four  drugs  of  vegetable 
origin  (not  counting  preparations)  are  excluded,  while  only  four 
new  ones  are  admitted,  namely,  branches  of  Cactus  grandiHorus, 
seeds  of  Cola  acuminata,  fruit  of  Sahal  serrulata,  and  roots  of 
Scopola  carnioUca. 

The  drawings  are  made  according  to  a  uniform  scale  with 
the  exception  of  those  marked  *  which  are  on  a  larger  scale  and 
which  must  be  measured  according  to  the  scale  with  Fig.  102. 
The  scale  of  measurement  given  with  figures  i,  51  and  102  is  in 
microns  (micron  =1-1000  of  one  mm.),  and  is  to  be  used  in 
measuring  the  histological  elements  figured  and  comparing  them 
with  those  of  the  powder  under  examination.  The  student  should 
use  an  eye-piece  micrometer  in  making  such  comparisons.  Due 
allowance  must  be  made  for  possible  natural  variation  in  the  size 
of  histological  elements.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  the 
drawings  of  those  cells,  cell-contents,  etc.,  which  are  of  average 
or  representative  size. 


104  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  stratification  and  lamellation  of 
sclerenchyma  cells  and  similar  structures  has  been  almost  en- 
tirely omitted,  as  this  is  quite  uniform  and  would  add  but  little  to 
the  value  of  the  illustrations,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would 
entail  much  additional  labor  in  making  the  drawings,  and  would 
detract  from  the  distinctness  of  outline.  Colored  cell-walls,  as 
cork-cells,  colored  cell-contents  as  resin,  red  coloring,  matter,  etc., 
are  indicated  by  shading  (dots  or  lines).  The  color  of  sclerenchy- 
ma, tracheids,  bast  and  ducts  is  not  indicated,  as  it  is  not  suf- 
ficiently variable  to  be  specially  diagnostic,  excepting  in  a  few 
examples.  In  such  cases  the  distinctive  color  is  mentioned  in  the 
histological  description. 

The  histological  elements  figured  and  described  are  those 
which  are  most  characteristic  in  the  powder.  No  attempt  has, 
however,  been  made  to  indicate  the  relative  abundance  or  diag- 
nostic importance  of  the  various  elements  figured.  That  is,  in  a 
measure,  indicated  in  the  histological  description. 

Attention  is  again  called  to  the  possible  variation  in  the  color 
of  powdered  vegetable  drugs.  The  colors  given  refer  to  the  re- 
cently prepared  powders  of  the  fineness  indicated.  The  following 
is  a  tabulation  of  the  more  common  causes  modifying  the  colors 
of  pure  powders.  Adulteration,  etc.,  as  factors  modifying  colors, 
have  already  been  explained  : 

1.  Increased  fineness  (using  the  fineness  cited  as  the 
standard  of  comparison)  produces  tint  effects  and  increased 
homogeneity  or  uniformity  of  color. 

2.  Increased  coarseness  produces  a  mottled  effect  and  less- 
ened uniformity  of  color.  The  color  tends  toward  shade  effects 
and  toward  the  color  of  the  predominating  tissue  of  the  crude 
drug. 

3.  Moisture  causes  powders  to  assume  a  darker  coloration. 

4.  Exposure  to  sunlight  and  dry  air  causes  the  powders  to 
fade  rapidly,  producing  gray  effects. 

5.  Oily  powders,  as  clove  and  mace,  darken  rapidly. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  105 

6.  Light  brown  powders  are  subject  to  considerable  varia- 
tion in  color,  as  Nux  vomica,  aconite,  colocynth,  zingiber,  bella- 
donna, etc. 

7.  The  reddish  brown  powders  of  barks,  of  cocoa,  areca  nut, 
quarana,  and  rhatany,  do  not  change  color  very  much. 

8.  Powders  of  leaves  and  flowers  fade  quite  rapidly. 

The  following  is  the  plan  of  special  description  of  each  pow- 
der: Official  name  of  drug,  common  name  of  drug,  indication 
whether  official  or  not,  fineness  of  powder  for  fluid  extract  and 
tincture  and  for  other  special  purposes,  a  few  English,  German 
and  French  common  names,*  the  part  of  the  plant  employed,  with 
scientific  name  of  drug  yielding  plant  and  natural  order,  color  of 
powder,  odor,  taste,  histological  characteristics,  and  finally,  possi- 
ble or  probable  adulterants. 

U    ABSINTHIUM.    Absinthium.     (U.  S.,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  30.  Tinct.  30. 

Wormwood,  E.,  Wermuth,  Alsei,  G.,  Absinthe  commune,  Grande 
absinthe,  aluine,  Fr. 

The  leafy  tops  of  Ahsintliium  vidgarc,  Lam.,  Compositae. 

Grayish  green. 

Faintly  aromatic,  disagreeable  and  narcotic  when  briskly 
rubbed. 

Very  bitter,  somewhat  salty. 

Epidermal  cells  of  leaves  with  wavy  vertical  walls ;  stomata 
above  and  below ;  T-shaped  trichomes  with  three  to  four  basal 
cells ;    rather  large,  thin-walled  bladdery  glandular  trichomes ;    a 


*It  would  be  practically  impossible  to  give  all  of  the  general  and 
local  common  names  applied  to  a  drug  or  the  plant  from  which  the 
drug  is  derived.  It  is  also  well  to  remember  that  while  common 
names  are  frequently  a  useful  guide  to  the  identity  of  a  drug  they 
may  be  a  source  of  serious  mistakes  because  the  same  common  name 
is  often  applied   to  two   or  more  widely  different  substances. 


io6 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


few  pollen  grains  characteristic  of  the  order.     Histology  closely 
similar  to  that  of  Achillea. 

Related  species  and  species  of  Artemisia  are  used  as  a  substi- 
tute or  adulterant. 


Fig.  I.    ACHILLEA. 

a.  Upper  and  lower  epidermis. 

b.  Epidermis  of  petiole  and  stems. 

c.  Pollen  grains. 

d.  Trichomes. 

e.  Bast  of  vascular  bundles. 

f.  g.     Tracheids  and  ducts  of  vascular  bundles. 
h.     Prismatic  crystal  bearing  fibres. 

i.      Side  view  of  epidermal  tissues. 
y.     Prismatic  crystals  and  starch. 


SrEciAL  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  107 

2.     (Fig.  J.)     ACHILLEA.     Yarrow,  Milfoil. 
Fl.  ex.  30. 
Schafgarbe,  Schafgrippe,  G.  Alillefeuille,  Herbe  aux  charpentiers, 
Fr. 

The  flowering  parts  of  Achillea  Millefolium  L.,  Compositae. 

Grayish  green. 

Aromatically  fragrant,  resembling  chamomille. 

Bitter,  astringent,  somewhat  saline. 

Epidermal  cells  (upper  and  lower)  of  leaves  tabular  with 
wavy  vertical  walls.  Hair  cells  simple  with  one  to  six  basal  cells 
and  long  apical  cell ;  walls  moderately  thick,  smooth.  A  few  blad- 
dery glandular  hairs.  Stomata  on  upper  and  lower  epidermis. 
Two  or  three  rows  of  palisade  cells.  Spongy  tissue  of  spheroidal 
cells.  Parenchyma,  bast,  tracheids,  spiral  ducts.  Fibres  with  pris- 
matic crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  from  stems,  petioles  and  veins. 
Pollen  grains  characteristic  of  the  order. 

On  account  of  its  cheapness  and  wide  distribution  this  drug 
is  rarely  adulterated.  The  following  species  indigenous  to  Europe 
are  sometimes  employed:  A.  ptarmica,  L.,  A.  aceratum,  L.,  A. 
nohilis,  L.,  A.  moschata,  L.,  A.  atrata,  L.,  A.  Nana,  L. 

3.     (Fig.  2.)     ACONITUM.     Aconite.    Leaves. 

Fl.  ex.  30.     Tinct.  40. 

Monkshood,  Wolfsbane,  E.  Eisenhut,  Sturmhut,  G.  Coque- 
luchon,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Aconitum  NapeUus  L.,  Ranunculaceae. 

Rather  dull  green. 

Nearly  odorless,  faintly  fragrant. 

Bitter,  pungent,  producing  a  benumbing  effect. 

Epidermal  cells  (upper  and  lower)  tabular  with  wavy  ver- 
tical walls ;  stomata  on  lower  surface  only ;  upper  cells  larger 
and  vertical  walls  less  wavy ;  trichomes  simple,  single  celled  with 
warty  markings.  Few  comparatively  thin  walled,  nearly  color- 
less, very  porous,  stone  cells.     Pollen  grains  oval. 

Occasionally  adulterated  with  the  leaves  of  related  plants. 


io8 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  2.    ACONITUM.    Leaf. 

a.  Lower  epidermis. 

b.  Trichomes. 

c.  Pollen  grains. 

d.  Parenchyma  cells  of  stem. 

e.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 
/.  Upper  epidermis. 

4.     (Fi^.30     ACONITUM.    Aconite.    U.S.    Roots. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  60. 

Names  and  origin  as  for  3. 

Light  brown. 

Odor    faint,    recalling    Taraxacum;    recalling    horse-radish 
when  moist. 

Sweetish,  pungent,  producing  a  benumbing  effect. 

Parenchyma  cells  large,  thick  walled,  with  compound  starch 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


109 


granules ;  sclerenchyma  cells,  few,  nearly  colorless,  walls  rather 
thin,  porous ;  porous  ducts.  The  powder  turns  yellow  with  potas- 
sium hydrate  solution  and  a  deep  red  with  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid. 

Adulterations  with  related  species  (A.  Fischeri,  Fig.  4)  oc- 
casionally roots  of  Aniwracia  (horse  radish)  and  Imperatoria 
Ostruthutm  (European  Masterwort).  Suspect  the  use  of  ex- 
hausted powders  and  defective  roots. 


Fig.  3.    ACONITUM.    Root 

0.  Parenchyma  cells  with  starch. 

b.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

c.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

d.  Ducts. 

e.  Starch  granules. 


no 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  4.*     ACONITUM  FISCHERI. 

a.  Sclerenchyma  cells,  nearly  colorless. 

b.  Sclerenchyma  cells,  nearly  colorless. 

c.  Sclerenchyma  cell  from  cork  layer,  deep  reddish  brown. 

d.  Parenchyma  cells  bearing  starch,  transverse  view. 

e.  Parenchyma  cells,  longitudinal  view.  Starch  granules  mostly  sim- 
ple, rarely  two  and  three  compound.  Large  number  of  aggregate  granules, 
many  of  which  become  separated  in  powdering  showing  the  pentangular 
simple  granules. 

/.     Ducts. 

The  distinguishing  histological  characteristics  between  A.  Napellus 
and  A.  Fischeri  are:  In  A.  Fischen  the  cell-walls  are  as  a  whole  thinner, 
particularly  of  the  parenchyma  cells.  Sclerenchyma  cells  are  fewer. 
Starch  granules  mostly  simple  with  many  aggregate  granules  and  poly- 
gonal simple  granules. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  detect  admixtures  of  the  two  roots  in  pow- 
dered form. 


*For  figures  marked  *  use  micrometer  scale  found  with  figure  102. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


Ill 


Fig.  5.    ALTHAEA. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  mucilage  cells,  starch  and  aggregate  crystals. 

b.  Bast  cells. 

c.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

d.  Starch  granules  and  crystals. 

e.  Tracheids. 

f.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 


5.     (Fig,  5.)     ALTHAEA.    Althea,  Marshmallow.    U.S. 

Finely  cut.     Fine  powder. 

Althee,  Eibisch,  G.    Giiimauve,  Fr. 

The  peeled  roots  of  Althaea  officinalis  L.,  Malvaceae. 

Very  light,  nearly  white,  yellowish  tinge. 

Faintly  fragrant ;    recalling  taraxacum. 

Sweetish,  mucilaginous. 

Typical    parenchyma    cells    and    mucilage    cells,    aggregate 


112 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  and  simple  starch  granules ;  elongated 
bast  cells ;  and  porous  ducts.  The  bast  bells  are  quite  diagnostic, 
The  mucilage  bearing  cells  are  larger  than  the  normal  paren- 
chyma cells.  Hili  and  stratification  of  the  starch  granules  indis- 
tinct. 

Among  possible  adulterations  suspect  flour  and  other  starchy 
cereal  meals.     Old  and  limed  material  mav  be  used. 


Fig.  6.    AMYGDALA. 

a.  Sclerenchymatous  epidermal  cells. 

b.  Edosperni  cells  with  proteid  granules  and  oil  globules. 

c.  Sclerenchyma  cells  of  testa. 

d.  Spiral  duct. 

e.  Cells  from  inner  coat  of  testa,  lateral  view. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  113 

6.     (Fi^.  6.)     AMYGDALA.    Almond. 

Paste ;  fine  powder  or  meal. 

Mandeln,  G.  Amandes,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Amygdala  coiiuniuiis,  L.  Rosaceae. 

Very  light  brown,  nearly  cream  color. 

Faintly  aromatic ;   almond  odor  when  moist. 

Bitter  almond — Bitter,  somewhat  pungent. 

Sweet  almond — Bland,  sweetish,  somewhat  pungent. 

Large,  reddish  brown  sclerenchymatous  epidermal  cells ;  en- 
dosperm cells  with  proteid  granules  and  oil  globules,  but  no 
starch;  deep  reddish  brown  typical  sclerenchyma  cells;  vascular 
tissue  very  sparingly  present.  The  reddish  brown  sclerenchyma 
cells  are  quite  thickwalled,  very  porous  and  occur  singly.  The 
large  sclerenchymatous  epidermal  cells  are  mostly  broken.  Con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  colors  the  powder  a  rose  red. 

May  be  adulterated  with  flour  and  starch. 

7.     (Fig.  7.)     AMYLUM.    Starch.    U.S. 

Fine  dry  crepitant  meal. 

Starke,  G.     Amidon,  Fr. 

Obtained  from  starch  bearing  organs  of  widely  dififerent 
plants.  The  starch  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  Zea  Mays,  L. 
Gramineae,  is  official.  The  following  are  the  move  important 
commercial  starches,  including  corn  starch.  All  purified  starches 
are  similar  as  to  gross  characters ;  white,  odorless  and  tasteless. 
The  sweetish  taste  is  due  to  the  action  of  ptyalin  which  converts 
starch  into  sugar. 

White,  odorless.     Sweetish. 

A.     Corn  starch,  E.,  Maisstarke,  G.,  Fecule  de  mais,  Fr. 

The  starch  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  Zea  Mays,  L.  Gramin- 
eae. 

Granules  of  medium  size ;  polygonal,  due  to  mutual  pressure ; 

radiate  centric  hilum ;  stratification  not  noticeable ;  a  few  com- 


114 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


7y®0^o 


e 


03 


or 


0  ogO 

0  G^ 


O         s< 


Fig.  7.    AMYLUM. 

a.  Potato  starch. 

h.  Maranta  starch. 

c.  Pea  and  bean  starch. 

d.  Cassava  starch. 

e.  Corn   starch. 

/.  Dextrinized  corn  starch. 

g.  Wheat  starch. 

h.  Rice  starch. 

pound  granules ;  some  granules  rounded  or  spheroidal ;  compara- 
tively uniform  in  size.     (Fig.  J,  e.') 

B.     Rice  starch,  E.,  Reisstarke,  G.    Farina  de  riz,  Fr. 

The  starch  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  Oryza  sativa,  Gram- 
ineae. 

In  form  and  other  characters  much  like  corn  starch  but  much 
smaller ;  it  is  the  smallest  of  the  commercial  starches ;  granules 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  115 

quite  uniform ;  manv  aggregated ;  a  few     compound     granules. 
(Fig.  7,  h.) 

C.  Potato  starch,  E.  Kartoffelstarke,  G.  Fecule  de  pomme 
de  terre,  Fr. 

From  the  tubers  of  Solamim  tuberosum,  L.,  Solanaceae. 

Granules  small  to  large ;  irregularly  oval  or  pearshaped ; 
hilum  not  very  conspicuous,  excentric,  nearer  the  narrowed  end; 
stratification  distinct.     (Fig.  7,  a.) 

D.  Maranta  or  Arrow-root  starch,  E.     Marantastarke,  G. 

Salep  des   Indes  occindentalis,   Fr. 

From  the  rhizomes  of  Maranta  ariindinacea,  L.,  Maranta- 
ceae. 

Granules  resemble  those  of  potato  starch  in  general  appear- 
ance, smaller,  more  uniform  in  size  and  hilum  at  larger  end  in- 
stead of  the  narrower  end.     (Fig.  7,  h.) 

E.  Canna  starch,  Toulema  starch,  E.  Cannastarke,  G.  Am- 
idon  de  canne,  Fecule  de  Tolomane,  Fr. 

From  the  rhizomes  of  Canna  edulis  Ker.,  Marantacere. 
In  form  and  size  not  unlike  potato  starch,  more  variable  in 
outline;  hilum  mostly  near  the  narrower  end. 

F.  Brazilian  arrow-root,  tapioca  or  Cassava  starch,  E.  Cas- 
savastarke,  G.     Amidon  de  Cassava,  Fr. 

From  the  roots  of  Manihot  utilissinia  Pohl,  Euphorbiaceae. 

Granules  of  about  the  size  of  corn  starch ;  single  granules 
spheroidal ;  hilum  quite  distinct,  somewhat  radiate,  centric ;  many 
granules  compound  in  twos  and  threes,  mostly  separated,  showing 
facets.     (Fig.  7,  d.) 

G.  Sago,  E.     Sago,  Palmenstarke,  G.     Sagou,  Fr. 

From  the  pith  of  various  palms — Metroxylon  Sagu,  Rott- 
boell,  M.  Rumphil,  Mart.,  Sagiis  farinifera,  Lam.,  Arenga  sach- 
arifera,  Lab.,  Palmae. 

Granules  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  Cassava;  irregular 
in  outline;  mostly  compound  as  in  Cassava,  hilum  excentric; 
stratification  quite  distinct. 


1 16  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

H.  Wheat  starch,  E.  Weizenstarke,  G.  Amidon  de  ble., 
Fr. 

From  the  seeds  of  Tritiaini  vnlgare,  Villars,  Gramhiese. 

Granules  simple,  spheroidal ;  lenticular  to  more  or  less  oval, 
variable  in  size ;  largest  comparatively  large ;  hilum  very  promi- 
nent,   radiate;    centric;    stratification    not    very    distinct.      (Fig. 

7,5-) 

I.     Rye  starch,  E.    Roggenstarke,  G. 

From  Sccale  ccreale,  L.,  Gramineae. 

Much  like  wheat  starch. 

Besides  the  above  there  are  a  number  of  other  starches 
which  are  found  upon  the  market  occasionally  as  oat  starch,  pea 
and  bean  starch,  (Fig.  y,  c.)  and  starches  from  other  leguminous 
seeds,  yam  starch  (from  the  subterranean  organs  of  various 
species  of  Dioscorea),  musa  or  banana  starch  (from  the  fruits  of 
Mtisa  paradisiaca,  L.),  batata  starch  (from  the  tubers  of  Batatas 
edulis,  Chois),  curcuma  starch  or  East  Indian  Arrow-root  (from 
the  tuberous  roots  of  Curcnina  Icncorrhiza,  Roxb.,  C.  angitsti- 
folia,  Roxb.),  and  others. 

Dextrin  is  starch  which  has  been  modified  by  heat  and  dilute 
nitric  acid.  Dilute  acid  or  heat  alone  converts  starch  into  dextrin 
but  applying  both  is  more  satisfactory.  Any  of  the  starches  may 
be  used  but  naturally  the  one  which  is  cheapest  and  most  readily 
obtainable  is  taken.  In  the  United  States  corn  starch  is  used. 
In  dextrinized  starch  the  granules  become  larger  in  size,  more 
irregular  in  form,  less  distinct  in  outline,  while  hilum  and  stratifi- 
cation appear  quite  distinct.  The  general  structural  characteris- 
tics are,  however,  still  sufficiently  marked  to  reveal  the  origin  of 
the  starch  through  a  careful  microscopical  examination.      (Fig. 

7,  f-) 

Upon  examining  the  commercial  products  made  from  starch 
or  meals  very  rich  in  starch,  as  pearl  sago,  tapioca,  macaroni, 
spaghetti,  etc.,  it  will  be  found  that  some  or  most  of  the  starch 
is  dextrinized,  due  to  the  heat  employed  in  the  manufacture. 


Special  Description'  of  Vegetable  Powders.  117 

One  starch  is  frequently  adulterated  with  other  starches  or 
one  starch  is  substituted  for  another.  This  is,  however,  not  a 
serious  matter,  as  the  various  starches  are  closely  similar  in  phys- 
iological and  chemical  properties.  As  already  stated  (see  Adulter- 
ations), starches  and  flour  are  much  used  in  the  adulteration  of 
powdered  drugs. 

To  obtain  starch,  the  wheat  or  grain  or  other  seed  is  soaked 
in  warm  water  until  softened,  then  ground  under  water  and  wash- 
ed upon  suitable  sieves.  The  starch  is  washed  out  of  the  broken 
cells,  collected  by  subsidence,  drained  and  then  dried  in  spe- 
cially constructed  drying  chambers.  Starch  bearing  rhizomes, 
roots  and  tubers  are  ground  or  rasped,  macerated  and  further 
ground  under  water  and  the  starch  separated  as  above. 

8.  ANGUSTURA.    Angustura.    Bark. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 
Angusturarinde,  G.     Angusture,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Galipca  Cusparia,  St.  Hil.,  Rutacese. 

Yellow  brown. 

Somewhat  aromatic ;  musty. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

Rather  small,  thin  walled  bark  parenchyma  with  small  starch 
granules  and  aggregate  and  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate ; 
numerous  typical  stone  cells ;  no  bast  cells.  Larger  parenchyma 
cells  with  golden  yellow  resin  and  a  few  with  acicular  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate  (raphides). 

Formerly  the  bark  of  Strychnos  Niix  vomica  (false  An- 
gustura  bark)  w^as  mistaken  for  Angustura  bark. 

9.  (Fig.  8.)     ANISUM.    Anise.    U.S. 

Bruised.         Meal. 
Anis,  G.    Anis,  Anis  vert,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Anistiin  vulgare,  Moench,  Umbelli ferae. 
Fine  powder  a  dull  yellowish  brown. 


Ii8 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fragrantly  aromatic.    Anise  odor. 

Sweet,  pungent. 

Numerous  short  single  celled  trichomes ;  endosperm  tissue 
with  proteid  granules  and  oil  globules ;  a  reddish  brown  tissue 
enclosing  the  oil  glands.  Vascular  tissue  sparingly  present. 

Said  to  be  adulterated  with  fruits  of  Coninm  maculatum. 
Also  adulterated  with  various  inert  vegetable  substances,  fennel 
and  star  anise. 


Fig.  8.    ANISUM. 

a.  Endosperm  cells  with  proteid  granules  and  oil  globules. 

b.  Trichomes. 

c.  Thin-walled  parenchyma  of  testa. 

d.  Epidermal  cells  of  pericap  with  trichomes. 

e.  Reddish  brown  cells  of  pericarp. 

f.  Parenchyma,  longtitudinal  view. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  119 

JO.    AN  THEMIS.    Anthemis.    U.S. 

Entire  or  bruised. 

Chamomille  flowers,  Roman  or  English  chamomille,  E.  Romische 
Kamille,  G.     Camomille  romaine,  Fr. 

The  flower  heads  of  Anthemis  nohilis,  L.,  Compositae. 

Chamomille  odor,  somewhat  camphoraceous. 

Quite  bitter. 

Epidermal  tissue  with  stomata.  Single  celled  rather  thick 
walled  trichomes  and  some  glandular  trichomes.  Pollen  grains 
typical  of  the  order  Compositae. 

Adulterated  with  flowers  of  Anthemis  arvensis,  Manila  Co- 
tula,  Matricaria  Chamomilla,  Achillea  Ptarinica  and  Pyrethrum 
Parthenium. 

n.     (Fi^.  9.)     APOCYNUM.    Apocynum.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Canadian  hemp,  E.  Canadische  Hanfwurzel,  G.  Chanvre  du 
Canada,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Apocynum  cannahinum,  L.,  Apocynaceae. 

Light  grayish  brown. 

Faint  soil  odor   (musty),  narcotic. 

Very  bitter. 

Parenchyma  cells  medium  size  with  simple  starch  granules; 
large  and  small  porous  ducts ;  cork  tissue  sparingly  present.  A 
few  sclerenchyma  cells  are  present,  like  those  of  A.  Androsaemi- 
folium. 

Candian  hemp  and  dog's  bane  are  variously  substituted  for 
each  other.     Not  generally  adulterated. 


120 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  9.*    APOCYNUM  CANNABINUM. 

a.  Parenchyma  bearing  starch.     Granules  similar  to  those  of  A.  An- 
drosaemifolum. 

b.  Resin   bearing  cell,    resin   colorless   and  crystalline.     These   resin 
bearing  cells  are  quite  large,  the  one  figured  is  one  of  medium  size. 

.    c.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

d.  Deep  reddish  brown  cork  cells. 

e.  Porous  duct. 

f.  Wood  elements. 


Special  Description  of  ^^EGETABLE  Powders. 


121 


Fig.  10.*    APOCYNUM  ANDROSAEMIFOLIUM. 

a.  Parenchyma  cells  bearing  starch.  Starch  granules  simple,  very 
rarely  two  compound,  oval,  hilum  and  stratification  wanting  or  very  in- 
distinct. 

b.  Granular  substance  (resin),  nearly  colorless.  , 

c.  Sclerenchyma,  very  typical.  Pores  distinct,  branching;  color  yellow. 

d.  Deep  reddish  brown  cork  cells. 

e.  Fragment  of  porous  duct. 

f.  Wood  elements.  ' 

J2.    (Fig,  JO.)    APOCYNUM  ANDROSAEMIFOLIUM. 
Dog:'s  Bane. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 
Dog's  Bane,  E. 

The  roots  of  Apocymim  androsaemifoUum,  E.,  Apocynacese. 

Light  brown. 

Odor  and  taste  as  for  preceding  species. 


122 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Histology  like  that  of  the  preceding  species  excepting  that 
numerous  typical  yellowish  sclerenchyma  cells  are  present.  Com- 
pare also  the  resin  bearing  cells. 


Fig.  n.    ARECA  NUT. 

Endosperm  cells  with  fat. 

Cells  with  large  aleuron  granules. 

Crystalloids,  prismatic,  enclosed  in  proteid  matter. 

Radially  elongated  reddish  brown  epidermal  cells. 


J 3.     (Fig.  no     ARECA.    Arcca  nut. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Fine  meal.     Charcoal,  powdered. 

Betel  nut,  E.     Betelnuss,  Arekanuss,  G.     Noix  d'arec,  Fr. 
The  seeds  of  Areca  Catechu,  L.,  Palmae. 
Bright  reddish  brown. 

Nearly  odorless.     Characteristic  when  fresh. 
Astringent. 
Endosperm  cells  with  very  thick  porous  walls  containing  fat 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


123 


and  proteid  granules ;  radially  elongated  conical  reddish  brown 
epidermal  cells.  Large  aleuron  granules  with  well  developed 
cr}stalloids. 


Fig.  J2.    ARNICA.    Flowers. 

a.  Trichomes. 

h.  Pollen  grains. 

c.  Pappus. 

d.  Glandular  trichomes. 

e.  Epidermal  cells. 

/.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

J4     (Fi^.I2.)     ARNICA.    Arnica.    U.S.    Flowers. 

Fl.  ex.  30.  Tinct.  20. 

Wohlverleih,  Fallkraut,  Arnika,  G.    Arnique,  Arnica,  Fr. 
The  flower  heads  of  Arnica  montana,  L.  Compositae. 
Light  brown. 
Fragrant,  recalling  gaultheria. 


124 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Bitter,  somewhat  pungent. 

Pollen  grains  typical  of  the  order  Compositae ;  simple,  many 
celled  trichomes ;  many  celled  glandular  trichomes ;  numerous 
pappus  remnants  ;  epidermal  cells  with  wavy  vertical  walls. 

Adulterated  with  flowers  of  various  Compositae  as  Calendula, 
Anthernis,  Inula,  Scnecio. 


Fig.  J3.     ARNICA.    Entire  plant. 

Epidermal  cells  of  leaf. 

Trichomes. 

Parenchyma,   longitudinal   view. 

Parenchyma,  transverse  view. 

Pollen  grain. 

Trichome  and  epidermal   tissue  of  root. 

Parenchyma  of  root. 

Porous  ducts. 

Spiral  ducts. 

Parenchyma. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  125 

J5.    (Fig.  13.)     ARNICA.    Arnica.     (U.S.,  1890.)     Roots, 
Rhizomes  and  some  Leaves. 

Fl.  ex.  60.         Tinct.  40. 

Origin  and  names  as  for  the  preceding. 

The  roots  and  rhizomes  are  prescribed  but  the  basal  branches 
and  leaves  are  generally  included. 

Very  dark  brownish  gray. 

Very  faintly  aromatic  or  fragrant,  recalling  odor  of  hay. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

Trichomes,  pollen  grains  and  epidermal  cells  as  for  the  flower 
but  more  sparingly  present.  In  addition,  the  parenchymatous 
and  vascular  tissue  of  roots,  leaf  stalks  and  stems ;  parenchyma- 
tous cells  typical,  free  from  any  characteristic  contents ;  ducts 
and  tracheids  porous ;  some  spiral  vessels.  Epidermal  cells  of 
leaf  with  wavy  vertical  walls. 

Adulterated  with  roots  and  rhizomes,  of  other  species  and 
rhizomes  of  strawberry. 

16.    (Fig.  14.)    ASARUM.    Wild  Ginger. 

Fl.  ex.  60.       Syrup,  coarse  powder. 

Canada  snakeroot,  E.     Hazelwurzel,  G.     Asaret,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Asarum  canadense,  L.,  Aristol- 
ochiaccae. 

Light  grayish  brown. 

Aromatic,  recalling  ginger ;  camphoraceous. 

Very  pungent,  somewhat  bitter. 

Parenchyma  of  rather  loosely  united  thick  walled  cells  with 
compound  starch  granules  and  larger  resin  bearing  cells ;  some 
cork  tissue ;  tracheids ;  reticulate  and  spiral  ducts.  Outer  paren- 
chyma cells  more  or  less  collenchymatous.  Powder  turns  a  deep 
red  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

In  1897  Bicknell  found  that  A.  canadense  represented  two 
species,  A.  canadense  and  A.  reflexiim.     Histologically  the  two 


126 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


species  resemble  each  other  closely.  A.  reilexnm  is  apparently 
more  deficient  in  resin  and  starch,  parenchyma  cells  have  thinner 
walls.  Vascular  tissue  more  deficient.  Reaction  with  sulphuric 
acid  less  marked. 


Fig.  14.    ASARUM. 


Parenchyma  with  starch. 

Reticulate  duct. 

Spiral  duct. 

Porous  ducts. 

Cork  tissue. 

Resin  cell. 

Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


127 


Fig.  15.    ASCLEPIAS  TUBEROSA. 

a.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

c.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

d.  Prismatic  and  aggregate  crystals. 

e.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  crystals. 

f.  Starch  granules. 

g.  Reticulate  ducts. 

J7.    (Fig.  15.)    ASCLEPIAS.    Asclepias.    (U.  S.,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex,  60. 

Pleurisy  root,  E.     KnoUige  Schwalbenwurzel,  G.     Racine  d'as- 
clepiade  tubereuse,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Asclepias  tnhcrosa,  L.,  Asclepiadaceae. 

Very  light  yellowish  brown. 

Nearly  odorless ;  nauseating  when  moist. 

Somewhat  pungent  and  bitter. 


I2S 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Numerous  typical  yellow,  porous  sclerenchyma  cells ;  paren- 
chyma cells  rather  thin  walled  containing  compound  starch  gran- 
ules and  prismatic  and  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate ; 
large  and  smaller  reticulate  and  porous  ducts. 

Roots  of  related  species  may  be  substituted. 


Fig.  16.*    ASPIDIUM. 

a.  Intercellular   resin  gland. 

b.  Resin  of  golden  yellow  color. 

c.  Intercelluar  space. 

d.  Starch  bearing  parenchyma  cells. 

J 8.     (Fig.  J 6.)    ASPIDIUM.    Aspidium.    U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  6o. 

Male  fern,  Male  shield  fern,  E.  Wurmfarn,  Waldfarn,  Johan- 
neswurzel,  G.     Fougere  male,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  stipes  of  Dryopteris  Filix-mas,  Schott, 
and  D.  marginale,  Gray,  Filices. 

Light  greenish  brown.      Old  material  brown. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


129 


Nearly  odorless,  recalling  taraxacum.  Old  material  has  a 
heavy,  nauseating,  rancid  odor. 

Very  astringent,  sweetish,  slightly  bitter  and  pungent. 

Large  loosely  united  parenchyma  cells  with  large  simple 
starch  granules;  numerous  large  intercellular  spaces  with  lemon 
colored  resin;  vascular  tissue  typical  of  the  fern  group,  rather 
large  scalariform  ducts ;  some  cork  tissue. 

Adulterated  with  rhizomes  of  other  ferns. 


Fig.  17.    ASPIDOSPERMA. 

Very  large  bast  cell,  all  lined  with  crystal  bearing  cells. 

Sclerenchyma  cells. 

Parenchyma  with  phloem  group. 

Parenchyma. 

Sclerenchymatous  tracheids. 

Prismatic  crystals. 

Small  celled  parenchyma. 

Crystal  bearing  parenchyma  and  stone  cell. 


130  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

«' 

J 9.   (Fig.  17,)    ASPIDOSPERMA.  Aspidosperma.  (U.S.,  1590.) 

Fl.  ex.  6o. 
Quebracho.  E.,  G.,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Aspidosperma  Quebracho,  Schlecht.,  Apocyna- 
ceae. 

Rather  light  cinnamon  brown.* 

Faintly  aromatic,  nearly  odorless.  ' 

Very  bitter. 

Very  large  sclerenchymatous  bast  cells  lined  with  paren- 
chyma cells  bearing  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate ;  larger 
and  smaller  typical  sclerenchyma  and  sclerenchymatous  tracheids ; 
bark  parenchyma  cells  rather  small,  thin  walled  with  groups  of 
phloem  cells ;  prismatic  crystals  very  numerous.  Powder  turns 
deep  reddish  brown  with  potassium  hydrate  solution. 

Adulterated  with  barks  of  related  species. 

20.    (Fig.  J  8.)    AURANTIUM  AMARUM.    Bitter  Orange 

Peel.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  40.         Tinct.  30. 
Pomeranze,  G.      Orange  amere,  Fr. 

The  rind  of  the  fruit  of  Citrus  Aurantiinii  var.  amara,  L., 
Aurantaceae. 

Very  light  yellowish  brown. 

Fragrantly  aromatic. 

Pungent,  bitter. 

Outer  parenchyma  of  smaller  thick  walled  closely  united 
cells ;  inner  parenchyma  cells  very  loosely  united  leaving  large 
intercellular  spaces ;  numerous  rather  large  prismatic  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate ;  epidermal  cells  small,  with  small  yellow  pig- 
ment granules,  oil  and  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Oil 
glands  destroyed  in  powdering.     Vascular  tissue  deficient. 

Histologically  similar  to  peel  of  sweet  orange,  lemon  and 
lime. 


*"Cinnamon  brown"  refers  to  the  color  of  Cassia  cinnamon. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


131 


4k 


^ 


c^^ 


Fig.  18.    AURANTIUM  AMARUM. 

a,  b.     Outer  parenchyma  with  crystals. 

c.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

d.  Inner  spongy  parenchyma. 

e.  Epidermis,  vertical  view. 
/.     Crystal  bearing  fibres. 

2J.     (Fi?.  J9.)     BELLADONNA.    Belladonna.   U.S.    Leaves. 

Fl.  ex.  60         Tinct.  60. 
Names  and  origin  as  for  22. 

Leaves  and  younger  terminal  branches  included. 

Green. 

Somewhat  fragrant;  nauseous  when  moist. 

Somewhat  bitter  and  pungent. 

Stomata  above  and  below,  vertical  walls  wavy;  simple  many 
celled  trichomes,  also  glandular  trichomes ;  leaf  and  petiole  paren- 
chyma cells  with  crystal  sand  and  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate. 


132 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Mixed  with  the  leaves  of  digitalis,  hyoscyamus,  verbascum, 
stramonium,  Solanuin  nigrum  and  Scopola  carniolica. 


Fig.  J  9.    BELLADONNA.    Leaf. 

j        a.  Epidermal  cells. 

b.  Trichomes. 

c.  Leaf  parenchyma  cells  with  crystals. 

d.  Parenchyma. 

e.  Tracheids  and  spiral  duct. 

f.  Glandular  trichome. 

g.  Bast  cells. 

22.    (Fig.  20.)    BELLADONNA.     Belladonna.    U.S.    Roots. 

Fl.  ex,  6o.     Tinct.  6o. 
Deadly  nightshade,  Dwale,   E.      Belladonna,    Tollkraut,  Wolf- 
skirsche,  Tollkirsche,  G.     Belladone,  Morelle  furieuse,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Atropa  Belladonna,  L.,  Solanaceae. 

Light  brownish  gray. 

Nearly  odorless ;  soil  odor. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


133 


Sweetish,  somewhat  bitter  and  pungent. 

Rather  large  celled  parenchyma  with  compound  starch  gran- 
ules ;  cells  with  crystal  sand ;  rather  large  porous  ducts ;  few 
tracheids ;  some  cork  tissue. 

Adulterated  with  old  roots  (excessive  amount  of  woody  tis- 
sue), roots  collected  in  the  spring  (quite  free  from  starch),  roots 
of  allied  species  and  of  Mcdicago  sativa.  Scopola  roots  are  sub- 
stituted for  belladonna.     (See  Scopola  roots.) 


Fig.  20.    BELLADONNA.    Root. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  crystal  sand. 

6.  Duct,  end  view. 

c.  Porous  ducts. 

d.  Starch  granules. 

e.  Cork  cells. 

/.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 


134 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs 


Fig.  21.    BERBERIS. 

a.  Sclerenchymatous  bast  cells. 

b.  Sclerenchyma. 

c.  Parenchyma. 

d.  Prismatic  crystals. 

e.  Parenchyma,   longitudinal  view. 
/.  Outer  cork  cells. 

23.     (Fi^.  2J.)     BERBERIS.    Bafberry. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Sauerdorn,  Bereberitzen,  Saurach,  G.  Berberide,  Epine-vinette, 
Vinettier,  Fr. 

The  root  bark  of  Berheris  canadensis  (vulgaris),  L.  Berber- 
idaceae. 

Brownish  lemon  yellow. 

Odorless. 

Bitter;  colors  saliva  yellow. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


135 


Sclerenchymatous  bast  cells  and  typical  sclerenchyma ;  nu- 
merous bark  parenchyma  cells  with  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate.     Suberized  cells  of  the  outer  bark. 


Fig.  22.    BRYONIA  ALBA. 

Parenchyma  with  starch. 
Reticulate  ducts. 
Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 
Parenchyma. 
Porous  duct. 
CoUenchymatous  tissue. 
Duct,  transverse  view. 
Starch  granules. 


24. 


(Fig.  22.)     BRYONIA.     Bryonia,  Bryony.     (U.  S.,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  60.       Tinct.  40. 
Zaunriibe,  Gichtrube,  G.    Bryone  blanche,  Coulevree,  Fr. 
The  roots  of  Bryonia  alba,  L.,  Cucurbitaceae. 


136 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Very  light  brown. 

Slight  odor,  recalling  taraxacum. 

Very  bitter. 

Rather  large  thin  walled  paranchyma  cells  with  compound 
starch  granules ;  some  collenchymatous  parenchyma ;  large  porous 
and  reticulate  ducts ;  tracheids ;  small  amount  of  corky  tissue. 

Rarely  adulterated.     Related  species  may  be  substituted. 


Fig.  23.    BUCHU.    Short. 

a. 

Lower  epidermis. 

b. 

Upper  epidermis. 

c. 

Lower  epidermis,  lateral  view. 

d. 

Upper  epidermis,  lateral  view. 

^,  i 

f.     Parenchyma. 

g- 

Tracheids. 

h. 

Spongy  tissue  cells. 

i. 

Bast  cells. 

y. 

Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

k. 

Trichome. 

Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  137 

25.    (Fig,  23.)     BUCHU.    Buchu  leaves.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  60. 

Buccoblatter,  Buckublatter,  G.  Feuilles  de  bucco  (booko, 
biichu),  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Barosina  crenulata,  Hooker,  B.  serratifolia, 
Willd.,  Riitaceae. 

Pale  green. 

Aromatic,  mint-like. 

Bitterish,  pungent. 

Epidermal  cells  with  vertical  walls  straight,  containing 
inulin ;  stomata  on  lower  surface  only ;  cuticle  with  warty  eleva- 
tions ;  trichomes  very  few,  simple,  single  celled,  short ;  no  crys- 
tals. 

The  histology  of  long  buchu  and  false  long  buchu  practically 
identical  with  that  of  short  buchu.  The  cuticular  markings  are, 
however,  less  prominent. 

26.     (Fig.  24.)    CAFFEA.    Coffee. 

Roasted ;  in  coarse  powder. 

Kaffee,  G.     Cafe,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Caffea  arabica,  L.,  Rubiaceae. 

Very  dark  brown.     Unroasted,  very  pale  green. 

Very  aromatic.     Coffee  odor. 

Somewhat  bitter  and  astringent. 

Seed  coat  consists  of  a  very  thin  walled  parenchyma  and 
bast  like  sclerenchyma  cells ;  endosperm  tissue  consists  of  thick- 
walled  porous  cells  bearing  proteid  granules  and  fat. 

Ground  roasted  coffee  adulterated  with  a  great  variety  of 
substances,  among  others  roasted  and  ground  chicory,  beet  roots, 
carrot  roots  and  cereals. 


138 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  24.    CAFFEA. 
0.     Sclerenchyma  cells  of  testa. 

b.  Endosperm  cells  with  fat  and  minute  starch  granules. 

c,  d  e.  Outer  tissue  cells. 

27.     (Fi^.  25.)    CALAMUS.    Calamus.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  6o.     Tinct.  6o. 

Sweet  flag,  E.    Kalmuswurzel,  G.     Acore  vrai,  Acore  odorant, 
Fr. 

The  peeled  and  tinpeeled  rhizomes  of  Acorns  Calamus,  L., 

Araceae.     The  unpeeled  article  takes  the  preference. 

Unpeeled,  light  brown. 

Peeled,  very  light  brown. 

Aromatic  and  camphoraceous. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

Parenchymatous  tissue  with  large  intercellular  spaces,  cells 
thin  walled  containing  very  small,  simple  starch  granules ;  a  num- 
ber of  larger  cells  containing  a  brownish  resin ;  vascular  tissue  of 
porous,  reticulate,  spiral  and  annular  ducts;  some  cork  tissue; 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


139 


parenchyma  immediately  below  the  cork  tissue  of  closely  united 
cells. 

Not  frequently  adulterated. 


Fig.  25.    CALAMUS. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  minute  starch  granules. 

b.  Oil  and  resin  bearing  cells. 

c.  Spiral  duct. 

d.  Outer  Parenchyma  and  epidermis. 

e.  Parenchyma  from  near  periphery. 
/.  Parenchyma  as  a. 

g.     Reticulate  ducts. 

28.     (Fi^.26.)     CALENDULA.    Calendula.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.         Tinct.  20. 

Marigold,  E.     Ringelblume,  Todenblume,  G.     Souci,  Fleurs  de 
tous  le  mois,  Fr. 

The  ray  flowers  of  Calendula  officinalis,  L.,  Compositae. 

Bright,  brownish  yellow. 
Fragrant ;  narcotic. 

Slightly  bitter  and  saline. 


140 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Many-celled  trichomas ;  pollen  grains  characteristic  of  the 
order ;  epidermal  cells  of  petals  with  yellow  coloring  matter. 


Fig.  26.    CALENDULA. 

a.  Epidermal  cells  of  petal  with  yellow  coloring  bodies. 

b.  Pollen  grains. 

c.  Trichomes. 

d.  Parenchyma. 

e.  Ducts. 

29.     (Fig.  27.)    CALUMBA.    Calumba.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  20.  Tinct.  20. 

Columbo,  E.    Kolombowurzel,  G.    Colombe,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Jateorrhiza  palmata,  Miers,  Menispermaceae. 
Pale  brownish  yellow. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


141 


Slight  odor,  recalling  taraxacum. 

Bitter,  mucilaginous. 

Large-celled  thin  walled  parenchyma  with  large  simple  starch 
granules  having  very  distinct  radiate  hili;  very  large  reticulate 
ducts;  a  few  thin  walled  porous  sclerenchyma  cells  and  some 
corky  tissue. 

Adulterated  with  roots  of  Bryonia  alba  and  Frasera  Walteri. 


Fig.  27.    CALUMBA. 

o.     Parenchyma  with  starch  granules. 

h.     Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

c,  d.     Sclerenchyma  cells. 

e.     Reticulate  ducts. 

/.     Cork  cells,  lateral  view. 


142 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  28.    CANELLA. 

a.  Sclerenchyma  cells,  walls  unequally  thickened. 

b.  Typical  sclerenchyma. 

c.  Parenchyma. 

d.  Resin  bearing  cells. 

e.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

f.  Parenchyma  with  starch  granules  and  crystals. 

g.  Aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 
h.  Parenchyma. 

».      Starch  granules. 

30.    (Fig.  28.)    CANELLA.    Canella  Bark. 

Fl.  ex.  6o. 

White  wood,  White  cinnamon,    E.     Weisser    Zimmt,    Weisser 
Canel,  G.     Canelle  bl^inche,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Canella  alba,  Murray,  Canellaceae. 

Very  pale  brownish  yellow. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


143 


Aromatic,  recalling  cinnamon. 

Pungent,  somewhat  bitter. 

Isodiametric  sclerenchyma  cells  with  unequally  thickened 
walls ;  bark  parenchyma  with  numerous  aggregate  crystals  of  cal- 
cium oxalate  and  large  cells  filled  with  a  bright  yellow  resin ;  some 
rather  small  spherical  simple  starch  granules. 


Fig.  29.    CANNABIS  INDICA. 

a.  Lower  epidermis  of  leaves. 

b.  Upper  epidermis  of  leaves. 

c.  Trichomes  with  cystoliths. 

e.  Spiral  ducts. 

f.  Parenchyma  with  minute  aggregate  crystals. 

g.  Phloem  tissue. 


144  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

3U    (Fig.  29.)     CANNABIS  INDICA.    Indian  Hemp.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  20.        Tinct.  40. 

Hemp,  E.    Hanf,  G.    Chanvre,  Fr. 

The  female  (pistillate)  flowering  tops  of  Cannabis  sativa,  L., 
Urticaceae. 

Dull  greenish  brown. 

Very  narcotic,  heavy. 

Slightly  pungent. 

Lower  epidermal  cells  with  wavy  vertical  walls ;  vertical 
walls  of  lower  epidermis  and  of  stem  straight ;  single  celled  short 
simple  trichomes  containing  cystoliths ;  numerous,  very  small 
aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate ;  vascular  tissue  sparingly 
present. 

American  hemp  is  medicinally  inert. 

32.    (Fig.  30.)     CAPSICUM.    Capsicum.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.  Tinct.  30. 

Cayenne,  African  or  Pod  Pepper,  E.  Spanischer  Pfeffer,  Schlot- 
enpfeffer,  G.  Capcique,  Piment  des  jardins,  Piment  rouge, 
Poivre  de  Cayenne,  Fr, 

The  fruit  of  Capsicum  fastigiatum,  Blume,  Solanaceae. 

Bright  yellowish  red. 

Faint  odor,  characteristic. 

Exceedingly  pungent. 

Epidermal  cells  of  seed  large  with  very  thick  porous  wavy 
walls ;  epidermal  cells  of  pericarp  with  moderately  thick  porous 
wavy  yellow  walls ;  endosperm  cells  containing  proteid  granules 
and  oil  globules,  walls  porous. 

The  powder  is  adulterated  with  a  variety  of  substances  as 
fruit  of  allied  species,  red  lead  oxide,  saw  dust,  bran,  mustard, 
flour,  starch,  etc. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


145 


Fig.  30.    CAPSICUM. 

a.  Epidermis  of  seed. 

b.  Endosperm  cells  with  proteid  granules  and  oil  globules. 

c.  Peripheral  endosperm. 

d.  Epidermal  cells  of  pericarp. 
c.  Isolated  epidermal  cells. 

33.    CARBO  ANIMALIS.    Animal  Charcoal.    U.  S. 

Coarse  powder.  Fine  meal. 

Boneblack,    Ivory   black,    E.     Thierkohle,    Knochenkohle,   Bein- 
schwarz,  G.     Charbon  animal,  Noir  d'os,  Fr. 

The  partially  oxidized  bones  of  animals. 

Lustrous  black. 

Odorless. 

Tasteless. 


146  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

Microscopically  there  is  no  distinctly  recognizable  structure. 
It  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  wood  charcoal  by  the  ab- 
sence of  remnants  of  wood  fibres  and  calcium  oxalate  crystals. 
The  fragments  of  the  finely  powdered  charcoal  are  short,  con- 
ciioidal  and  not  elongated  splintery. 

34.  CARBO  LIGNI.    Charcoal.    U.  S. 

Coarse  and  fine  powder. 

Wood  charcoal,  E.  Holzkohle,  Priiparirte  Kohle,  G.  Charbon 
vegetale,  Fr. 

Made  from  partially  oxidized  soft  wood  (willow  and  other 
plants). 

Dull  black. 

Odorless. 

Tastless. 

Brown  wood  fibre  remnants  are  quite  abundant,  intermingled 
with  the  black  coarser  more  oxidized  cell  groups.  Crystals  of 
calcium  are  also  to  be  found.     Numerous  splintery  fragments. 

35.  CARDAMOM.    Cardamom.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.         Tinct.  30. 

Malabar  cardamom,  E.  Cardamom,  Kleine  Kardamomen,  G. 
Cardamomes,  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Elcttaria  rcpcns,  BailL,  Scitaminaceae. 

Light  brown. 

Aromatic,  spicy,  somewhat  comphoraceous. 

Pungent,  cooling  sensation. 

Epidermal  cells  of  pericarp  of  polygonal  cells ;  parenchyma 
cells  of  pericarp  thin  walled  containing  prismatic  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate ;  endosperm  cells  containing  oil,  minute  starch 
granules  and  proteid  granules. 

Ceylon  Cardamom  is  distinguished  from  the  Malabar  Carda- 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  147 

mom  bv  the  presence  in  the  former  of  thick  walled,  conical,  simple 
trichomes. 

Adulterated  with  various  varieties,  green  coffee,  orange  and 
lemon  seeds. 

36.    CARTHAMUS.    Saff lower. 

Entire. 

African,  False,  American,  or  Dyer's  Saffron,  E.  Saflor,  G.  Car- 
thame,  Fr. 

The  florets  (removed  from  receptacle  or  torus)  of  Carthamus 
tinctorhis,  L.  Compositse. 

Deep  red. 

Fragrant ;  faint  odor  of  cured  tobacco. 

Somewhat  bitter ;  saliva  yellow. 

Epidermal  cells  with  red  coloring  matter  soluble  in  water. 
Pollen  grains  quite  large,  exine  with  rather  blunt  conical  projec- 
tions and  three  very  distinct  pores. 

Much  employed  as  an  adulteration  of  and  substitute  for 
Crocus  sativus. 

Z7,    CARUM.    Caraway.    U.S. 

Entire ;  bruised. 

Kiimmel,  G.     Carvi,  Cumin  des  pres,  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Cantm  Carvi,  L.,  Umbelliferae. 

Greenish  brown. 

Aromatic,  recalling  coriander. 

Pungent ;  bitterish,  sweetish. 

Parenchyma  of  pericarp  of  thin  walled  more  or  less  collapsed 
yellowish  cells.  Endosperm  cells  contain  fat  and  proteid  gran- 
ules ;  cell  walls  of  endosperm  cells  are  of  uniform  medium  thick- 
ness, cells  isodiametric,  closely  united.  Vascular  tissue  very 
sparingly  present.  No  trichomes  or  sclerenchyma.  Yellowish 
resin  particles  or  lumps. 


148 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  31.    CARYOPHYLLUS. 

a.  Parenchyma  cells  with  oil  and  granules. 

b.  Bast  cells. 

c.  Inner  spongy  Parenchyma. 

d.  Oil  gland. 

e.  Epidermal  tissue,  lateral  view. 
/.  Crystal  bearing  parenchyma. 
g.  Pollen  grains. 

i.      Epidermal  cells,  vertical  view. 

y.     Aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

38.    (Fig.Zi,)    CARYOPHYLLUS.     Cloves.    U.S. 

Ground,  rather  cotirse. 

Gewiirznelken,  Nagelein,  G.    Girofle,  Gerofle,  Clous  aromatiques, 
Fr. 

The  unexpanded  flowers  of  Eugenia  caryophyllata,  Thun- 
berg,  Myrtaceae. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


149 


Deep  dark  reddish  brown. 

Very  aromatic ;  clove  odor. 

\'ery  pungent,  benumbing. 

Pollen  grains  triangular  mostly  immature;  very  few,  rather 
short,  thick  walled  bast  cells ;  outer  parenchyma  of  closely  united 
cells  containing  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate;  cuticle 
enormously  thickened ;  inner  parenchyma  spongy.  Numerous 
large  glands  containing  oil  and  resin.  No  starch  present  but  the 
parenchyma  cells  contain  oil  and  small  granules  of  tannin.  A  con- 
centrated solution  of  potassium  causes  the  precipitation  of  acicular 
and  radiately  aggregate  crystals  (eugenol  reaction). 

Quite  frequently  adulterated ;  with  clove  stalks,  mother 
cloves  (clove  fruit),  exhausted  cloves,  roasted  flour,  etc. 


Fig.  32.    CASCARILLA. 


150  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

a.  Parenchyma    cells,    longitudinal    view,    with  crystals    and     starch. 
Two  bast  cells  enclosed. 

b.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  resin. 

c.  Bast  cell. 

c.  Outer  sclerenchyma,  vertical  view. 

/.  Prismatic  and  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

g.  Parenchyma. 

/;.  Outer  sclerenchyma,  lateral  view. 

39.    (Fig.  32.)    CASCARILLA.    Cascarida  Bark.    (U.  S..  1890.) 

FI.  ex.  6o.     Tiiict.  6o. 

Sweetwood  bark,  E.  Kaskarillrinde,  G.  Cascarille,  Chacrille, 
Ecorce  eleutherienne,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Croton  Eluteria,  Bennett,  Euphorbiaccae. 

Somewhat  dull  cinnamon  brown. 

Aromatic,  recalling  cinnamon ;  somewhat  musk-like  when 
burnt. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

Outer  sclerenchymatous  tissue  with  cells  of  unequally  thick- 
ened walls ;  rather  short,  thick  walled  bast  cells ;  bark  parenchyma 
with  prismatic  and  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  small 
oval  simple  starch  granules  and  fat. 

Adulterated  with  bark  of  allied  species. 

40.    (Fig.  33.)    CASTANEA.    Chestnut.    (U.S.,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Kastanienblatter,  G.  Fueflles  de  chataigener,  Fuilles  de  mar- 
ronier,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Castanca  vcsca,  Gaert.,  Cupuliferce. 

Bright  green. 

Faintly  fragrant. 

Astringent. 

Vertical  walls  of  epidermal  cells  somewhat  wavy ;  stomata 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


151 


on  lower  surface  only ;  stellate  trichomes  and  some  glandular 
trichomes ;  leaf  parenchyma  with  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate. 

Adulterated  with  other  chestnut  leaves  and  oak  leaves. 


Fig.  33.    CASTANEA.    Leaf. 


a.  Lower  epidermis. 

b.  Upper  epidermis. 

c.  Stellate  trichomes. 

d.  Glandular  trichome. 

e.  Aggregate  crystals. 
/.  Spiral  ducts. 

g.  Bast  fibres. 

h.  Parenchyma. 


152 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  34.    CAULOPHYLLUM. 
a.     Parenchyma  with  starch  granules. 
fe-     Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

c.  Cork  cells. 

d.  Large  and  smaller  porous  ducts. 

Ai.  (Fi^,34.)  CAULOPHYLLUM.  Blue  Cohosh.  (U.S.,J890.; 

Fl.  ex.  60. 
Pappoose-root,  Squaw-root,  Blueberry-root,  E. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  CaulophyUum  thalictroides,  Mich., 
Berberidaceae. 

Rather  Hght  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Sweetish,  bitter,  pungent. 

Rather  large  thin  walled  parenchymma  with  small  simple 
spherical  starch  granules ;  some  cork  tissue ;  large  and  smaller 
porous  ducts ;  and  tracheids. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  153 

42.     CERTRARIA.     Ccrtraria.     (U.  S.,  1890.) 
Entire. 

Iceland  moss,  Lungwort,  E.  Islandisches  Moos,  Islandische 
Flechte,  Lungenmoos,  G.     Lichen  (Mousse)  d'Islande,  Fr. 

The  entire  plant,  Cetraria  islandica,  Ach.,  Lichens. 

Brownish  when  dry ;  bluish  green  when  moist. 

Practically  odorless ;  faintly  musty. 

Slightly  bitter  and  mucilaginous. 

The  fungal  portion  consists  of  a  peudo-parenchyma  and 
hyphal  network.  The  algse  (gonidia)  are  single  celled,  spherical, 
green.     Apothecia  and  spores  are  rare. 

x\dulterated  with  various  impurities  as  pine  leaves,  mosses 
and  grass  leaves. 


Fig.  35.    CHAMAELIRIUM. 


154  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

a.  Reddish  brown  bast  cells. 

h.  Sclercnchyma. 

c.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  rophides 

d.  Tracheids. 

e.  Cells  with  reddish  brown  contents. 

43.    (Fig.  35.)    CHAMAELIRIUM.    Starwort. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Blazing  star,  Devil's  bit,  False  unicorn-root,  E. 

The  rhizomes  of  C/ianiacliriimi  lutcuui,  Gray,  Melanthaceae. 

Brownish  gray. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Bitter. 

Large  sclerenchymatous  bast  cells ;  smaller  tracheid-like 
sclercnchyma  cells ;  isodiametric,  rather  thin  walled  sclercn- 
chyma cells ;  tracheids ;  parenchyma  with  small  simple  spherical 
starch  granules  and  raphides  of  calcium  oxalate ;  outer  paren- 
chyma with  reddish  brown  contents. 

44.    CHELIDONIUM.    Chelidonium.     (U.  S.,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  40. 

Celandine,  Tetterwort,  E.  Schollkraut,  G.  Chelidone,  Herbe  a 
I'hirondelle,  Fr. 

The  herb  of  Chelidonium  ma  jus,  L.,  Papaveraceae. 

Dark  greenish  brown. 

Fragrant  when  dry,  recalling  gaultheria ;  narcotic,  heavy, 
when  fresh  or  moist. 

Somewhat  pungent,  bitterish. 

Vertical  walls  of  upper  and  lower  epidermis  wavy ;  stomata 
on  lower  surface  only;  simple,  long,  many-celled,  smooth  and 
thin  walled  trichomes  above  and  below. 

Glancium  lutcum  (horn  poppy)  and  G.  coniiculatum  may  be 
substituted  for  chelidonium. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  155 


45.    CHENOPODIUM.    Chenopodium.     (U.  S,,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

American  wormseed,  E.  Amerikanischer  Wnrmsamen,  G.  An- 
serine vermifuge^  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Chenopodhiiii  amhrosioides,  L.,  Chenopodiaceae. 

Light  brown. 

Very  disagreeably  and  narcotically  terebinthine. 

Quite  pungent  and  somewhat  bitter. 

Vertical  walls  of  epidermal  cells  wavy ;  simple  trichomes 
with  usually  four  basal  cells,  elongated  curved  end  cell ;  glandular 
trichomes ;   numerous  leaf  parenchyma  cells   with   crystal   sand. 

Epidermal  tissue  of  pericarp  much  like  that  of  leaf  but  no 
trichomes ;  spongy  parenchyma.  Deep  bright  reddish  brown  tis- 
sue of  testa.  Very  thin  walled  endosperm  tissue  filled  with  pro- 
teid  granules  and  fat. 

Adulterated  with  fruit  of  allied  species. 

46.     (Fig.  36.)    CHIMAPHILA.    Chimaphila.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Pipsissewa,  Prince's  pine,  Wintergreen,  E.  Dolbenbliithiges 
Harnkraut,  Wintergriin,  G.    Herbe  de  pyrole  ombellee,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Chimaphila  umhcUata,  Nutt.,  Ericaceae. 

Grayish,  greenish  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Astringent,  sweetish,  bitterish. 

Vertical  walls  of  lower  epidermis  wavy  and  nodular,  cuticle 
much  thickened ;  stomata  on  lower  surface  only ;  leaf  parenchyma 
with  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate ;  no  trichomes.  Some 
compound  starch  granules.  Histology  similar  to  that  of  Gaul- 
theria. 


156 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  36.    CHIMAPHILA. 

a.  Lower  epidermis. 

b.  Upper  epidermis. 

c.  Upper  epidermis,  lateral  view. 

d.  Parenchyma  with  starch. 

e.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

f.  Leaf  parenchyma  cells  with  crystals. 

g.  Starch  granules. 
//.  Tracheids. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  i  57 


Fig.  37.    CHIRATA. 

a,  b.     Epidermal  tissue. 

c.  Pollen  grains. 

d.  Tracheids. 

e.  f.     Parenchyma. 

47.     (Fi?.  37.)     CHIRATA.    Chirata.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.  Tinct.  40. 

Chiretta,  E.     Ostindischer  Enzian,  Chiretta,  G.     Chirette,  Fr. 

The  herb  of  Swertia  Chirata,  Hamilton,  Gentianaceae. 

Dark  grayish  brown. 

Odorless. 

Extremely  bitter. 

Leaves  with  stomata  on  lower  surface  only ;  vertical  walls  of 
epidermal  cells  straight;    no  trichomes;    numerous  tracheids  and 


158 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


wood  fibres.  Some  merlium  sized,  spheroidal  to  eliptical,  nearly 
smooth,  yellowish  brown  pollen  grains.  Histological  elements  of 
leaves,  and  flowers  rather  indistinct. 


Fig.  38.    CICHORIUM. 

Parench3'ma  with   inulin. 

Parenchyma,   longitudinal  view,   with  inulin. 

Laticiferous   ducts. 

Cork  tissue. 

Parenchj-ma. 

Tracheids. 


48.     (Fi^.  38.)     CICHORIUM.    Chicory.    Succory. 

Roasted,  coarsely  powdered. 

Cichorie,  G.     Chicoree  sauvage,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  CicJwrium  Intybus,  L.,  Compositae. 
Roasted — verv  dark  brown. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


159 


Unroasted — Light  brown. 

Roasted — Aromatic,  characteristic. 

Unroasted — Nearly  odorless,  recalling  taraxacum. 

Roasted — Sweetish,  bitterish,  astringent. 

Unroasted — Bitter. 

Parenchyma  with  inulin ;  tracheids  ;  cork  tissue ;  lacticiferons 
ducts.  Woody  tissue  more  abundant  in  the  wild  growing  chicory. 
Roots  of  the  cultivated  plant  fleshy ;  the  parenchyma  predomi- 
nating. 

Used  as  an  adulterant  of  coffee  or  added  intentionally  to 
modify  the  flavor. 


Fig.  39.    aMIC[FUGA. 

a.  Parenchyma  cells  with  starch. 

h.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

c.  Cork  tissue. 

d.  Tracheids. 


i6o  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

49.    (Fig.  39.)    CIMICIFUGA.    Cimicifuga.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  60. 

Black  snakeroot,  Black  cohosh,  E.  Schwarze  Schlangenwurzel, 
G.     Racine  d'actee  a  grappes,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Cimicifiiga  raccnwsa,  Elliott, 
Ranunculaceae. 

Ash  gray. 

Nearly  odorless  when  dry ;  heavy,  narcotic  when  moist. 

Sweetish,  bitter,  pungent. 

Parenchyma  cells  rather  large  containing  minute  spherical 
starch  granules  ;  some  cork  tissue  and  tracheids. 

Rarely  adulterated. 

50.     (Fig.  40.)    CINCHONA.    Cinchona.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.  Tinct.  60. 

Peruvian  bark,  Jesuit's  bark,  E.     Chinarinde,  G.     Quinquina,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  several  species  of  Cinchona,  Rubiaceae. 

Red  cinchona — Bright  reddish  yellow. 

Yellow  cinchona — Yellowish  brown. 

Faintly  aromatic ;  musty. 

Very  bitter,  astringent. 

Large  scierenchymatous  bast  cells ;  few  sclerench}  ma  cells ; 
bark  parenchyma  with  simple  starch  granules  and  a  few  cells 
with  crystal  sand. 

Histologically  red  and  yellow  cinchona  are  practically  iden- 
tical. With  potassium  hydrate  red  cinchona  forms  a  deep  blood 
red  coloration,  while  yellow  cinchona  forms  a  yellowish  brown 
coloration. 

Various  bark  adulterations  may  be  suspected.  There  are 
numerous  varieties  of  cinchona  and  a  number  of  so-called  "false 
cinchonas," 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


i6i 


Fig.  40.    QNCHONA.    Red. 

a.  Large  sclerenchymatous  bast  cells. 

b.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

c.  Bark  parenchj'ma. 

d.  Cells  with  crystal  sand. 

e.  Medullary  ray. 

5J.  (Fig.4J.)  CINNAMOMUM.  Cassia  cinnamon.  (U.S.,  J890.) 

Coarse  powder,  as  a  spice. 

Chinese  cinnamon,  E.  Chinesischer  Zimmt,  Zimmtkassia,  G. 
Casse,  Cannelle  de  Chine,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  several  unknown  species  or  varieties  of  Cinna- 
momum,  Lauracese. 

Cinnamon  brown   (reddish  brown). 

Fragrant,  aromatic,  very  characteristic.  \ 

Sweet,  pungent,  somewhat  astringent.  ^     ' ' 


1 62 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Rather  short,  thick  walled  bast  cells ;  sclerenchyma  with  cell 
walls  unequally  thickened ;  parenchyma  cells  with  compound 
starch  granules ;  cells  with  numerous  small  prismatic  crystals ; 
large  resin  bearing  cells ;  cells  of  outer  bark  suberized  and  with 
reddish  brown  contents. 

Cassia  cinnamon  in  particular  is  likely  to  be  adulterated  with 
inferior  cassia  barks,  clove  bark,  flour,  inert  vegetable  substances. 


Fig.  41.    CINNAMON.     Cassia. 

a.  Sclerenchyma. 

b.  Bast. 

c.  Resin  cell. 

d.  Parenchyma  cells  with  starch. 

e.  Crystal  bearing  cell. 

f.  Outer  cork  cells. 

g.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

h.  Cells  with  reddish  brown  contents. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  163 


Fig.  42.    CINNAMON.    Ceylon. 

a.  Sclerenchyma  cells  with  unequally  thickened  walls. 

b.  Bast  cells. 

c.  Parenchyma  cells  with  starch. 

d.  Typical  thick-walled  parenchyma. 

c.     Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view,  with  starch  and  crystals. 

/.     Resin  and  oil  cell. 

g.     Outer  cork  cells,  sparingly  present. 

52.(Fig.42.)  CINNAMOMUM.  Ceylon  cinnamon.   (U.S.,  J890.) 

Coarse  powder,  as  a  spice. 

Brauner  canel,  Zeylonzimmt,  G.  Cannelle  de  Ceylon,  Fr. 
(See  Cassia  cinnamon). 
Rather  light  cinnamon  brown. 
Delicately  fragrant  and  aromatic. 
Sweet,  pungent,  slightly  astringent. 


1 64 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Histology  much  like  that  of  Cassia  Cinnamon ;  bast  cells 
cells  of  the  outer  cork  wanting;  starch  less  abundant.  It  is  pos- 
more  slender  and  somewhat  longer;  sclerenchyma  cells  larger; 
sible  to  distinguish  this  from  the  other  two  by  the  larger  scleren- 
chyma cells  and  absence  of  outer  cork  and  epidermal  tissues. 

Adulterations  as  for  Cassia  cinnamon. 


Fig.  43.    CINNAMON.    Saigon. 

a.  Sclerenchyma.  ^ 

b,  c.     Bast. 

d.  Epidermis,  lateral  view. 

e.  Epidermis,  vertical  view. 

/.     Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view  with  crystal  bearing  cell   (g)  resin 
cell   (h)  and  starch. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  165 


53.     (Fig.  43.)     CINNAMOMUM.    Saigon  cinnamon.    U.S. 

Coarse  powder.  Tinct.  40. 

Zimmt,  G.  Canelle,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Cinnamomum,  Lauraceae. 

Rather  dark  cinnamon  brown. 

Fragrant,  very  aromatic. 

Sweet,  very  pungant,  astringent. 

Histology  much  hke  that  of  Cassia ;     bast     cells  somewhat 
larger.     Starch  and  sclerenchyma  cells  much  as  in  Cassia  cinna- 
mon.     Numerous   small   epidermal   cells   with   thickened   walls. 
Resin  cells  and  crystals  as  in  the  other  cinnamons. 

Adulterations  as  for  Cassia  cinnamon. 

54.     (Fig.  44.)    COCA.    Coca.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  50. 

Cocablatter,  G.     Feuilles  de  coca.  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Erythroxylon  Coca,  Lam.,  Linese. 

Brownish  green  to  bright  green. 

Somewhat  fragrant,  tea-like. 

Astringent,  slightly  bitter  and  benumbing. 

Vertical  walls  of  epidermal  cells  straight ;  stomata  on  lower 
surface  only ;  outer  walls  of  lower  epidermal  cells  papillar  except- 
ing those  of  the  neighboring  cells  of  the  stomata ;  prismatic  crys- 
tals of  calcium  oxalate ;  no  trichomes. 

The  above  description  refers  to  the  powder  of  Bolivian  coca. 
The  Peruvian  (Truxillo)  coca  and  Brazilian  coca  are  closely 
similar  histologically;  the  papillar  projections  of  the  lower  epi- 
dermal cells  of  the  Brazilian  variety  are  very  marked  to  nearly 
globose. 


i66 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  44.    COCA. 

a.  Upper  epidermis. 

b.  Lower  epidermis. 

c.  Upper  epidermis,  lateral  view. 

d.  Lower  epidermis,  lateral  view. 

e.  Parenchyma. 

/.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

g.  Prismatic  crystals  of  calcium  axalate. 


55.    COCCULUS.     Fishberry. 

Kokkelskomer,  Fischkorner,  G.     Coque  du  Levant,  Fr. 

The  fruits  of  Anamirta  paniciilata,  Colebrooke,   Menisper- 
maceae. 

Brown. 

Heavy,  narcotic ;  becoming  very  fishy  and  rancid  with  age. 

Verv  bitter. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


167 


Flattened  epidermal  cells ;  parenchyma  cells  with  brown  con- 
tents. Numerous  sclerenchymatous,  thick  walled,  porous  wood 
fibres.  Endosperm  cells  thin  walled,  filled  with  proteid  granules 
and  oil.     Acicular  and  prismatic  cryctals  and  crystal  aggregates. 


a. 
b. 
c. 
d. 

e. 
f. 

56, 


Fig.  45.    COLCHICUM.    Corm. 

Parenchyma  with  starch. 
Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 
Thick-walled,  porous  parenchyma. 
Spiral  ducts. 
Starch  granules. 
Phloem  tissue. 


(Fig.  45.)     COLCHICUM.    Colchicum.    U.S.    Corm. 

Fl.  ex.  60.  Tinct.  30. 

Meadow-saffron,     E.     Wiesensafran,     Herbstzeitlose,     G.     Col- 
chique,  Safran  batard,  Fr. 


1 68 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


The  corms  of  Colchiciim  autumnale,  L.,  Liliaceae. 

Light  grayish  brown. 

Odorless. 

Sweetish,  bitter,  pungent. 

Parenchyma  cells  large  and  thin  walled  with  large  compound 
starch  granules  having  very  distant  stellate  hili ;  spiral  ducts  and 
some  thick  walled  porous  parenchymatous  tissues.  Vascular  tis- 
sue sparingly  present.  Powder  colors  reddish  yellow  with  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid. 


Fig.  46.    COLCHICUM.    Seed. 


0.     Endosperm  cells  with  protcid  granules  and  oil  globules. 
h.     Endosperm,  longitudinal  view. 
c.     Brown  epidermal  cells. 


d.     Hypodermal  cells. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


169 


57.    (Fig.  46.)     COLCHICUM.    Colchkum.    U.S.    Seeds. 

Fl.  ex.  30.  Tinct.  30. 

Names  and  origin  as  for  corm. 

Brown. 

Odorless. 

Bitter,  somewhat  pungent. 

Endosperm  cells  rather  large,  walls  very  thick  and  porous 
containg  proteid  granules  and  oil  globules ;  epidermal  tissue  of 
reddish  brown  cells.  Brown  outer  tissue  cells. 


Fig.  47.    COLOCYNTH. 

Epidermal  cells. 

Sclerenchyma  cells. 

Parenchyma. 

Parenchyma. 

Parenchyma. 

Spiral  ducts. 

Epidermis  of  seed. 

Small  celled  sclerenchyma. 


■With  seeds. 


170  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

58.    (Fig.  47.)    COLOCYNTHIS.    Colocynth.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.         Tinct.,  coarse  powder. 

Bitter  apple,  E.     Koloquinten,  G.     Coloquinte,  Fr. 

The  fruit  (peeled  and  freed  from  seeds)  of  CitriiUus  Colo- 
cynthis,  Schrader,  Cucurbitaceae. 

\^ery  light  yellowish  brown. 

Odorless. 

Extremely  bitter. 

Parenchyma  cells  very  large,  thin  walled ;  typical  scleren- 
chyma  cells ;  no  characteristic  cell  contents ;  vascular  tissue  spar- 
ingly present.    Parenchyma  cells  all  broken  and  collapsed. 

Powders  made  from  fruits  carefully  peeled  and  freed  from 
seeds  should  show  only  a  very  small  amount  of  epidermal  tissue 
and  yellow  sclerenchymatous  cells. 

59.    (Fig.  48.)     CONIUM.    Conium.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.  Tinct.  30. 

Hemlock,  poison  or  spotted  hemlock,  E.  Schierling,  Gefleckter 
Schierling,  G.     Grand  cique,  Cique  officinale,  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Conium  maculatum,  L.,  Umbelliferse. 

Yellowish  brown. 

Nearly  odorless ;  strong  mouse  odor  when  moistened  with 
strongly  alkaline  solutions. 

Somewhat  bitter. 

Endosperm  cells  with  proteid  granules  and  oil  globules ;  bast 
cells  from  fruit  stalk  and  parenchymatous  tissue  from  pericarp ;  no 
trichomes  or  sclerenchyma. 

Said  to  be  adulterated  with  anise  fruit  (see  Anise)  and  other 
Umbelliferous  fruits. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


171 


Fig.  48.    CONIUM.    Seed. 

0.  Endosperm  cells  with  oil  and  proteid  granules. 

h.  Bast  fibres. 

c.  Parenchyma. 

d.  Endosperm  tissue,  lateral  view. 

e.  Parenchyma  of  pericarp. 

f.  g.     Parenchyma. 

60.    (Fig.  49.)    CONVALLARIA.    Convallaria.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Lily  of  the  Valley,  E.     Maiblumen,  Maiglocklein,  G.     Muguet, 
Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Convallaria  majalis,  L.,  Liliaceae. 

Dull  brown. 

Somewhat  fragrant. 

Sweetish,  bitter,  pungent. 

Parenchyma  cells  medium  size,  many  of  the  nuclei  still  vis- 


172 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


ible ;  acicular  crystals  present ;  tracheids ;  spiral  ducts ;  some  cork 
tissue.  Epidermal  cells  (of  rhizomes  and  leaf)  elongated  with 
nuclei  still  visible.. 

]\Iay  be  adulterated  with  Polygonattinu  multifloriim  (Euro- 
pean Solomon's  seal)  and  Smilacina  racemosa  (false  Solomon's 
seal). 


Fig.  49.    CONVALLARIA. 

a,  b.     Parenchyma  with  raphides  and  showing  nuclei. 

c.  Cork  tissue. 

d.  Tracheids. 

e.  Spiral  ducts. 

61.     CORIANDER.     Coriander.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 
Koriander,  G.     Coriandre,  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Coriandnini  sativum,  L.,  Umbelliferae. 
Light  brown. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


173 


Peculiarly   aromatic ;    recalling  carum. 

Pungent. 

Some  yellowish  thin  walled  parenchyma ;  numerous  groups 
of  thick  walled,  porous,  elongated  bast-like  cells.  Endosperm  of 
rather  small  cells ;  walls  medium  in  thickness,  filled  with  oil  and 
proteid  granules.     No  sclerenchyma. 

Adulterated  with  stem  and  leaf  fragments. 


Fig.  50.    CORNUS. 

a.  Sclerenchyma,  some  with  granular  contents. 

b.  Parenchyma,  with  crystals. 

c.  d.     Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

e.     Prismatic  and  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

62.     (Fi^.  50.    CORNUS.    Comos. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 
Dogwood  bark,  E.     Grossbliithige  Kornelrinde,  Hornbaumrinde, 
G.     Ecorce  de  carnouiller  a  grandes  fleurs,  Fr. 


174 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


The  root  bark  of  Coriius  florida,  L.,  Cornace?e. 

Bright  pinkish  brown. 

Odorless.  « 

Bitter,  astringent. 

Rather  large  porous  and  thick  walled  sclerenchyma  alternat- 
ing with  smaller,  less  porous  sclerenchyma  containing  a  granular 
substance ;  parenchyma  with  prismatic  and  aggregate  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate. 


lU^^^AsL 


Fig.  51.    GOTO. 

a.  Large,   long   sclerenchyma  cells. 

b.  Large  rectangular  sclerenchyma  cells. 

c.  Sclerenchyma  cells  with  granular  contents. 

d.  Medium  sized  sclerenchyma  cells. 

e.  Thin  walled  sclerenchyma. 

f.  g.     Elongated  sclerenchyma. 

/;.     Sclerenchyma  with  lamellar  markings. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  175 

1.  Dark   reddish   brown   granular  oily  bodies. 

j.  Yellow  resin. 

k.  Parenchyma. 

/.  Starch  granules. 

63.     (Fi^.  5t.)     GOTO.    Goto  Bark. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Para  bark,  E.     Cotorinde,  G.     Ecorce  cle  Goto,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  some  botanically  unknown  South  American  tree, 
perhaps  belonging  to  the  Lauraceae  or  Anacardiaceae. 

Rather  deep  cinnamon  brown. 

Aromatic,  recalling  cinnamon  ;  camphoraceous. 

\'ery  pungent,  somewhat  bitter. 

Very  large  elongated  sclerenchyma  cells ;  smaller,  isodiamet- 
ric  sclerenchyma  cells ;  cell  walls  of  all  sclerenchyma  cells  greatly 
thickened  and  porous,  some  of  them  containing  a  granular  sub- 
stance ;  parenchyma  cells  containing  more  or  less  spherical,  gran- 
ular reddish  brown,  oily  bodies ;  numerous  larger  cells  containing 
yellow  resin ;  some  starch  granules,  mostly  simple. 

Goto  bark  is  less  common  than  paracoto  and  the  latter  is 
quite  generally  substituted  for  coto.  Various  other  barks  are  al- 
so substituted  for  coto.     (See  Paracoto). 

64.    (Fig.  52  )     CROGUS.    Saffron.     (U.  S.,  1890.) 

Entire. 

Spanish  saffron,  E.     Safran,  Spanischer  Safran,  G.     Safran,  Fr. 

The  stigmas  and  upper  parts  of  the  styles  of  Crocus  sativus, 
L.,  Iridaceae. 

Deep  red.     Should  not  be  oily. 

Aromatic ;  recalling  the  odor  of  iodoform. 

Bitter,  somewhat  pungent ;  saliva  a  bright  orange  yellow. 

Gells  elongated,  thin-walled,  filled  with  red  coloring  matter. 
Large,  very  thin-walled  bladdery  stigmatic  trichomes.       Pollen 


176 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


grains  few,  very  large,  spherical ;  exine  thick,  colorless ;  contents 
reddish,  granular. 

Adulterated  with  basal  portions  of  styles,  dyed  floral  parts, 
as  stamens  and  petals.  Safflower  {Carthannis  tinctorius)  is  fre- 
quently an  adulterant  of  or  substitute  for  crocus.  Also  adul- 
terated with  chalk,  gypsum,  colored  emery,  oil,  glycerine,  etc. 


Fig.  52.*    CROCUS. 

a.  Pollen  grains. 

b.  Tissue  of  style,   cells  with   red  coloring  matter. 

c.  Trichoma  of  stigma. 

65,    (Fig.  53.)     CUBEBA.    Cubcb.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  30. 

Kubeben,  G.     Cubebe,  Poivre  a  queue,  Fr. 

The  unripe  fruit  of  Cubeba  officinalis,  Miquel,  Piperaceae. 
Deep  dark  brown;  somewhat  oily,  granular. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


177 


Fig.  53.    CUBEBA. 

a.  Sclerenchyma. 

b.  Endosperm,   with   oil  globules  and  proteid  granules. 

c.  Cells  of  pericarp. 

d.  Parenchyma  of  stalk. 

e.  Epidermal   cells,  vertical  view. 

f.  Tracheids. 


Characteristically  aromatic ;  somewhat  camphoraceous. 

Pungent,  quite  bitter. 

Thick-walled,  very  porous  sclerenchyma  cells ;  some  scler- 
enchymatous  tracheids ;  endosperm  cells  with  minute  simple  spher- 
ical starch  granules ;  larger,  somewhat  elongated  cells,  containing 
oil. 

Powder  deteriorates  rapidly.  Adulterated  with  cubeb  stems 
(indicated  by  the  presence  of  small  parenchyma  cells  and  abund- 


178 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs 


ance  of  vascular  tissue  and  tracheids)  ;  black  pepper  and  other 
fruits  of  the  Piperaceae ;  Rhamnus  Cathartica  fruit,  Juniper  com- 
munis fruit,  allspice;  powdered  nut  shells,  etc. 


Fig.  54.    CURCUMA. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  pasty  starch.  ' 

b.  Parenchyma,    longitudinal   view. 

c.  Masses  of  pasty  starch. 

d.  Ducts. 

e.  Parenchyma. 

66.     (Fig.  54.)     CURCUMA.    Tormeric. 

Moderately  fine. 

Kurkuma,  Gelbwurzel,  G.     Curcuma,  Souchet  des  Indes,  Fr. 
The  rhizomes  of  Curcuma  longa,  L.,  Scitamineae. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


179 


Bright  orange  yellow. 

Faintly  aromatic,  recalling  ginger. 

Pungent,  somewhat  bitter. 

Parenchyma  cells  filled  with  pasty  starch.  The  entire  pow- 
der colored  yellow.  Some  scalariform  and  spiral  ducts.  Pa- 
renchyma cells  rather  thin-walled.  Pastiness  of  starch  due  to 
heat  employed  in  preparing  crude  drug. 


■a. 
b. 
c. 
d. 
e. 
f. 
g- 
h. 
i. 


Fig.  55.    CUSSO. 

Lower  epidermis. 

Upper   epidermis. 

Trichomes. 

Glandular  trichome. 

Parenchyma. 

Tracheids. 

Spongy  tissue  cells  of  leaf. 

Spiral  ducts. 

Pollen  grains. 


i8o  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

67,     (Fig.  55.)    CUSSO.     Koosso.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  40. 

Brayera,  Kiisso,  E.     Koso,  Kussro,  Cusso,  G.     Kousso,  Fr. 

The  female  (pistillate)  flowering  tops  of  Hagcnia  abyssiiiica, 
Gmelin,  Rosaceae. 

Rather  light  brown. 

Fragrant,  recalling  chamomile ;  somewhat  heavy. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

Epidermal  cells  with  straight  and  wavy  vertical  walls ;  simple, 
somewhat  twisted,  single  celled,  trichomas;  spherical  pollen 
grains  with  three  pores  each ;  many  celled  glandular  trichomes ; 
typical  spongy  tissue ;  bast ;  tracheids  and  spiral  ducts ;  numerous 
small  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

Numerous  pollen  grains  and  parts  of  anthers  filled  with  pol- 
len indicates  adulteration  with  male  flowers. 

68.     (Fig.  56,)    CYPRIPEDIUM.    Cypripcdium.    U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Ladies'  slipper,  American  valerian,  E.  Gelbfrauenschuh,  G. 
Valeriane  americane,  Cypripede  jaune,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Cypripcdium  puhcsccns,  Wild., 
and  C.  parviflorinn,  Salisbury,  Orchidaceae. 

Light  grayish  brown  (like  aconite). 

Odor  disagreeable,  heavy,  recalling  valerian. 

Sweetish,  bitter,  pungent. 

Parenchyma  cells  large,  thick- walled,  porous ;  raphides ; 
some  small,  simple  spherical  starch  granules ;  scalariform  tra- 
cheids ;  porous  tracheids ;  some  cork  tissue. 

Adulterated  with  Hydrastis  canadensis,  Polygala  Senega  and 
roots  and  rhizomes  of  other  plants.  Compare  the  two  official 
species. 


Spfxial  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  i8i 


■"^^ 


Fig.  56.    CYPRIPEDIUM  PUBESCENS. 

a.  c,  d.     Parenchyma  cells  and  raphides. 

b.  Cork  cells. 

c.  Parenchyma   with  starch  granules. 
f.     Tracheids. 

69.    DELPHINIUM.    Larkspur.    Seed. 

Fl.  ex.  40. 
Lark's  claw,  Knight's  spur,  E.     Rittersporn,  Lerchenklaue,  Horn- 
kummel,  G.     Pied  d'alouette,  Fr, 

The  seeds  of  Delphinium  consolida,  L.,  Ranunculaceae. 

Very  dark  ;  somewhat  oily. 

Disagreeable  nauseous  heavy  odor;  rancid  when  old. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

Outer  cells  of  seed  coat  quite  large ;  black,  indistinct  col- 
lapsed, thin-walled  parenchyma.  Endosperm  cells  large,  thick- 
walled  very  porous  and  somewhat  collenchymatous,  filled  with 
granular  proteid  matter  and  fat. 


i82  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

70.     (Fig.  7,/-.)     DEXTRINUM.    Dextrin. 

A  dry  fine  powder. 

British  gum,  E.     Dextrin,  G.     Dextrin,  Fr. 

Derived  from  starches.     (See  starch). 

Rather  Hght  brown,  quite  mobile.  Nearly  white,  yellowish 
brown  tinge,  less  mobile  (white  dextrin). 

Odorless. 

Sweetish. 

Outline  of  granules  indistinct,  quite  irregular,  hili  and  strati- 
fication quite  distinct.  The  histological  characteristics  are  still 
sufficiently  marked  to  determine  the  kind  of  starch  employed.  (See 

Fig.  7,  /;. 

In  the  United  States  corn  starch  is  employed.  White  dex- 
trin consists  largely  of  unmodified  starch  granules ;  no  high  tem- 
perature is  employed  in  its  preparation. 

71.    (Fig  57.)     DIGITALIS.    Digitalis.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  6o.     Tinct.  6o. 

Foxglove,  E.  Fingerhut,  G.  Digitale  pourpree,  Grand  digitale, 
Fr. 

The  leaves  (second  years'  growth)  of  Digitalis  purpurea,  L., 
Scrophulariaceae. 

Dull  green. 

Faintly  fragrant  when  dry ;  heavy,  nauseous,  when  moist. 

Bitter. 

Vertical  walls  of  upper  and  lower  epidermis  wavy,  those  of 
the  lower  more  so  than  the  upper;  stomata  on  lower  surface  only; 
simple,  many  celled,  rather  large  trichomes  with  minute  warty 
outer  markings ;  some  glandular  trichomes  with  two  secreting 
cells  ;  no  crystal  bearing  cells. 

Adulterated  with  leaves  of  first  year's  growth ;  leaves  of 
Verbascuiu  Thapsus,  (large,  branched  trichomes)  ;  Conyza  sqiiar- 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


183 


rosa;  Symphytum  officinale;  Inula  Helenium;  and  common  Com- 
frey.  The  histology  of  first  and  second  year  leaves  require  furth- 
er careful  comparative  study. 


Fig.  57.    DIGITALIS. 

a.  Upper  epidermis. 

b.  Parenchyma. 

c.  Lower  epidermis. 

d.  Trichomes. 

e.  Glandular  trichomes. 

/.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

72.    (Fi?.58.)    DULCAMARA.  Dulcamara.    (U.  S.,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Bittersweet,  woody  nightshade,  E.     Bittersiissstengel,  G.     Tiges 
de  douce-amere  (de  morelle  grimpante),  Fr. 


1 84 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  58.     DULCAMARA. 

a.  Epidermis. 

b.  Epidermis,  lateral  view. 

c.  Tracheids  or  wood  fibres  and  porous  ducts. 

d.  Parenchyma,  witli  crypto-crystals. 

e.  Medullary  ray. 

f.  Parenchyma,   longitudinal  view,  with  crystals. 

g.  Cork. 

h.  Typical  bast. . 

i.  Trichome. 

The  young  branches  of  Solanum  Dulcamara,  L.,  Solanaceae. 
Light  yellowish  brown. 
Faintly  heavy,  recalling  tobacco. 
Bitter,  afterwards  sweet  which  is  very  persistent. 
Typical  parenchyma ;  tracheids ;   porous   ducts ;   some   cork 
tissue;  a  few  small  pointed  simple  trichomes;  porous  medullary 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  185 

ray  cells.  Many  of  the  parenchyma  cells  filled  with  crypto-crys- 
talline  calcium  oxalate.  A  few  typical  bast  cells  distributed 
through  outer  parenchyma.  Epidermal  cells  polygonal ;  stomata 
few. 

Said  to  be  adulterated  with  stems  of  Humuhis  Lupiilus,  and 
Lonicera  Periciynioium. 

73.    ERGOTA.    Ergot.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.    Tinct.,  coarse  powder. 

Spurred  rye,  blasted  rye,  E.  Mutterkorn,  Hungerkorn,  Korn- 
mutter,  Zapfenkorn,  G.     Ergot  de  seigle,  Ble  cornu,  Fr. 

The  mycelium  of  Clavipcs  purpurea,  Tuslane,  Fungi,  dis- 
placing the  seeds  of  Secale  cercale,  L.,  Gramineae. 

Dark  ash  gray  tinged  with  purple. 

Somewhat  musty ;  heavy,  rancid,  herring  brine  odor  when 
old. 

Somewhat  sweetish  and  pungent;  nearly  tasteless. 

Consists  of  a  much  intertwined  hyphal  tissue.  The  outer 
layers  of  a  small-celled  pseudo-parenchyma  with  dark  cell-walls. 
Small  fragments  of  hyphae  only,  no  elongated  elements  visible. 
Fat  present;  no  starch  or  other  formed  substances  or  cell-con- 
tents. 

Deteriorates  rapidly. 

74.     (Fig.  59.)    ERIODICTYON.    Mountain  Balm.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Consumptives'  weed,  Bear's  weed,  E. 

The  leaves  of  Eriodictyon  glutinosum,  Bentham,  Hydro- 
phyllacese. 

Light  brownish  green. 

Somewhat  aromatically  fragrant;  recalling  tea  or  hay. 

Sweetish,  bitterish,  sticky  (resin). 

Upper  epidermal  cells  comparatively  large,  thick-walled 
with  linear  cuticular  markings,  vertical  walls  straight.     Lower 


1 86 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


toidermal  cells  similar  in  form,  but  much  smaller,  and  not 
readily  seen  because  of  the  numerous  trichomes.  Numerous 
simple,  single-celled,  thickwalled,  elongated  wavy  trichomes. 
Some  sessile  glandular  trichomes.  Aggregate  crystals  of  cal- 
cium oxalate. 

Mixed  with   Eriodictyon   tonicntosum   which   has   short  tri- 
chomes. 


Fig.  59.     ERIODICTYON. 

a.  Trichomes. 

b.  Upper  epidermis. 

c.  Lower   epidermis. 

d.  Glandular  trichomes. 

e.  Upper  epidermis,  lateral  view. 

/.  Parenchyma  with  crystals,  longitudinal  view. 

g.  Parenchyma. 

h.  Crystals. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


187 


Fig.  60.    EUCALYPTUS. 

a,  b.     Epidermal  tissues. 

c.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

d.  Parenchyma  with  crystals. 

e.  Prismatic  and   aggregate  crystals. 
/.     Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

g.     Crystal  bearing  fibre. 
i.     Tracheid. 


l88  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

75.     (Fig.  60.)     EUCALYPTUS.    Eucalyptus.    Leaves.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  40.    Tinct.  30. 

Eukalyptusblatter,  G.    Feuilles  d'eucalyptiis,  Fr. 

The  older  (sickle-shaped)  leaves  of  Eucalyptus  globulus. 
Lab.,  Myrtacese. 

Bright  green. 

Aromatic,  camphoraceous. 

Pungent,  bitter,  somewhat  astringent. 

Epidermal  cells  (upper  and  lower)  polygonal,  rather  thick- 
walled  ;  stomata  on  both  surfaces  but  guard  cells  not  visible  be- 
cause of  the  enormously  thickened  cuticle.  Some  sclerenchyma 
cells  and  sclerenchymatous  fibres  from  petiole.  Prismatic  and 
aggregate  crystals  quite  numerous. 

Adulterated  with  leaves  of  allied  plants.  The  leaves  from 
the  young  plant  are  dorsiventral,  stomata  on  lower  surface  only 
and  guard  cells  visible  because  the  cuticle  is  much  thinner. 

76.     (Fig.  61.)     EUONYMUS.     Euonymus.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Extract  30. 

Wahoo,  Spindle  tree,  Burning  bush,  E.     Spillbaumrinde,  Spin- 
delbaum,   Pfaflfenbliithen,   G.     Ecorce  de  fusain    (de  bonnet  de 

pretre),  Fr. 

The  root  bark  of  Euoiiynnis  atropnrpureiis,  Jacquin,  Celas- 
trineae. 

Light  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Sweetish,  bitter,  pungent. 

Rather  thinwalled  medium  sized  parenchyma  with  simple 
spherical  starch  granules  and  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate.    Ducts  and  tracheids  from  the  wood;  cork  tissue. 

The  stem  bark  (Fig.  62.)  can  be  distinguished  readily  by 
absence  of  starch ;  presence  of  typical  bast  fibres,  and  numerous 
larger  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


1 89 


Fig.  61.    EUONYMUS.     Root  Bark. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch  granules  and  aggregate  crystals  of  cal- 
cium oxalate. 

b,  c.     Cork  tissue,  top  view  and  lateral  view. 

d.  Cork. 

e.  Ducts  and  tracheids. 

/.     Parenchyma  with  starch,  longitudinal  view. 
g.     Starch  and  crystals. 


IQO 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  62.*    EUONYMUS.    Stem  Bark. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  large  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

b.  Typical  thick-walled  porous  bast. 

c.  Cork. 

d.  Phloem  bast  shown  in  transverse  section    (e). 
f.  Crystal. 

77.     (Fi?.  63.)     EUPATORIUM.    Eopatorium.    U.S. 
Fl.  ex.  30. 

Thoroughwort,  Boneset,  Indian  sage,  E.  Durchwachsdost, 
Durchwachener  Wasserdost,  G.  Herbe  d'eupatoire  perfoliee, 
Herbe  a  fievre,  Herbe  parfaite,  Fr, 

The  flowering  tops  and  leaves  of  Enpatorinm  perfoliatum, 
L.,  Compositse. 

Rather  pale  yellowish  green. 

Somewhat  fragrant,  hay-like. 

Quite  bitter,  slightly  astringent. 

Vertical  walls  of  upper  and  lower  leaf  epidermis  thin,  wavy. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


191 


Stomata  on  lower  surface  only.  Many  celled,  rather  thick-walled, 
simple  trichomes ;  bladdery  glandular  trichomes  with  single 
large  resin  bearing  end  cell.  Pappus  fragments  and  pollen 
grains. 


Fig.  63. 

Lower  epidermis. 
Upper  epidermis. 
Pappus. 
Trichomes. 
Glandular   trichomes. 
Pollen  grains. 


EUPATORIUM. 


U.S. 


78.     (Fig.  64.)     FOENICULUM.     Fennel. 

Entire;  bruised  or  fine  meal. 
Fennel-fruit,  Fennel-seed,  E.    Fenchel,  G.    Fenouil,  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Focnicuhim  capillaccum,  Gilibert,  Umbelliferae. 
Dull  yellowish  brown. 


192 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Aromatic,  anise  odor. 

Sweetish,  pungent. 

Outer  tissue  of  pericarp  of  colorless  reticulate  cells;  middle 
parenchyma  of  large  brown  cells.  Reticulate  tracheids.  Endo- 
sperm cells  colorless,  medium  size,  rather  thickwalled  porous^ 
filled  with  fat  and  granular  proteid  matter.    No  trichomes. 

Compare  histology  of  German  or  Saxon,  sweet  or  Roman, 
and  wild  or  bitter  varieties.    Compare  with  anise. 


Fig.  64/    FOENICULUM. 

a.  Endosperm  cells  bearing  a  few   oil  globules  and  crenate  proteid 
granules. 

b.  Parenchyma  cells  of  pericarp.   Walls  peculiarly  pitted,  not  shown 
in  drawing. 

c.  Deep  reddish  brown  cells  forming  oil  glands  of  pericarp. 

d.  Thin-walled  cells. 

e.  Reticulate   tissue. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


193 


Fig.  65.    FENUGREEK. 

a.  Epidermis,  lateral  view.  ' 

b.  Epidermis,  vertical  view. 

c.  Hypoderm. 

d.  Parenchyma. 

c.     Endosperm,    outer. 
/.     Parenchyma. 
g.     Outer  tissue. 
i,  j.     Parenchyma. 

79.     (Fig.  65.)     FOEUM  GRAECUM.     Fenugreek. 

Moderately  fine. 

Bockshornsamen,  G.    Fenugrec,  Senegrain,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  TrigoucIIa  Focinim  graccum,  L.,  Leguminosge. 
Very  pale  yellowish  brown. 
Very  strong  characteristic  odor. 
Bitter,  mucilaginous. 


194 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs 


Epidermis  of  vertically  elongated  cells  with  granular  co'n- 
tents ;  semilunar  hypodermal  cells  with  outer  convex  walls  much 
thicker,  of  yellowish  color;  some  thinwalled  parenchyma  con- 
taining granular  particles,  followed  by  an  inner  dermal  layer. 
Endosperm  cells,  rather  thin-walled,  filled  with  proteid  granules 
and  oil  globules. 


Fig.  66.    FRANGULA. 

a.  Parenchyma   with   reddish  brown  contents. 

b.  Crystal  bearing  fibres. 

c.  Outer  cork. 

d.  Parenchyma  with  crystals. 

e.  Parenchyma. 
/.  Parenchyma. 
^.  Bast. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders,  195 

80.     (Fi?.  66.)     FRANGULA.    Frangula.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Alder,  Buckthorn,  E.  Faulbaumrinde,  G.  Ecorce  de  Bour- 
daine,  Bourgene,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Rhaiimus  Frangiila,  L.,  Rhamnacese. 

Yellow  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Sweetish,  bitter,  somewhat  mucilaginous ;  saliva  yellow. 

Outer  bark  cells  filled  with  deep  reddish  brown  coloring 
matter.  Inner  bark  cells  without  coloring  matter,  with  a  few 
small  starch  granules,  some  with  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate.  Typical  thickwalled  bast  cells  and  prismatic  crystal 
bearing  fibres. 

Adulterated  with  barks  of  allied  species. 

81.     (Fi?.  67.)     GALLA.    Nutgall.    U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  40.     Tinct.  40. 

Aleppo  galls.  Galls,  E.  Gallen,  Gallappel,  G.  Galle  de  chene, 
Noix  de  galle,  Fr. 

Warty  (sub-globular)  excresences  upon  Qucrcus  lusitanica, 
Webb,  Cupuliferae,  caused  by  the  punctures,  eggs  and  larvae  of 
Cyiiips  Gallae  tinctoriae,  Insecta. 

Ash  grey. 

Inodorous. 

Very  astringent. 

Large  celled,  thin-walled  parenchyma  and  some  rather  thick- 
walled parenchyma.  Compound  starch  granules.  Yellowish 
porous  sclerenchyma  with  walls  of  medium  thickness.  Some 
parenchyma  cells  contain  aggregate  and  prismatic  crystals  and 
oval  or  bean-shaped  dark  brown  tannin  bodies. 


196 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


O  f 


Fig.  67.    GALLA.    Aleppo. 

a.  Sclerenchyma. 

b.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  tannin  bodies. 

c.  Parenchyma. 

d.  Parenchyma  with  crystals, 
r.  Tannin  bodies. 

/.  Starch  granules. 

^i:.  Spiral  duct. 

82.     (Fig,  68.)     GALLA.    Chinese  Galls. 

Fl.  ex.  40.     Tinct.  40. 
Chinese  galls,  Japanese  galls,  E.     Chinesische  Gallapfel,  Japan- 
esische  Gallapfel,  G. 

Galls  produced  upon  the  leaves  and  leaf  stalks  of  Rhus  seiui- 
alata,  Murray,  by  Aphis  chinensis,  Insecta. 
'     Brownish  ash  gray. 
Odorless. 
Very  astringent. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


197 


Numerous  mostly  single-celled  trichomes,  rather  thick- 
walled,  pointed  ends  recurved.  Thin-walled  parenchyma  with  a 
few  rather  small  simple  starch  granules.  Greenish  yellow  resm 
masses. 

The  two  galls  are  markedly  different  histologically.  Com- 
pare with  other  varieties.  The  Japanese  and  Chinese  galls  are 
closely  similar  histologically. 


Fig.  68.    GALLA.    Chinese. 

a.  Trichomes. 

b.  Epidermis. 

c.  Yellow  resin  bodies. 

d.  Parenchyma. 
c.  Spiral  ducts. 

f.  Parenchyma,  with  starch. 


198  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

83.    GAULTHERIA.    Gaulthcria. 

Fl.  ex.  40. 

Wintergreen,  Teaberry,  Partridgeberry,  Boxberry,  Chicken- 
berry,  E.  Canadischer  Thee,  Bergthee,  G.  I'^euilles  de  gaul- 
therie,  The  dii  Canada,  The  de  terre-neuve,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Gaulthcria  procumhens,  L.,  Ericaceae. 

Greenish  yellow  brown. 

Very  pleasantly  fragrant. 

Slightly  bitter,  very  astringent. 

Histology  closely  similar  to  that  of  chimaphila  (see  Chima- 
phila),  excepting  that  each  stoma  is  surrounded  by  two  neigli- 
boring  cells  instead  of  four  to  five,  and  that  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate  are  few  or  practically  wanting  in  the  leaf  parenchyma. 

84.     (Fi?.  69.)     GELSEMIUM.    Gelsemiom.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.,  60. 

Yellow  jessamine  or  jasmine,  E.  Gelsemie,  Giftjasmine,  G.  Jas- 
min sauvage,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Gclsciiniiiii  scinpcri'ircns,  Aiton, 
Logoniaceae. 

Very  pale  brown. 

Somewhat  narcotic,  heavy. 

Very  bitter. 

Considerable  cork  tissue.  Parenchyma  cells  rather  small, 
with  small  spherical  simple  starch  granules  and  prismatic  crys- 
tals of  calcium  oxalate.  Numerous  tracheids  and  large  porou.s 
ducts. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


IQQ 


Fig.  69.    GELSEMIUM. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch. 

b.  Epidermal  tissue. 

c.  Parenchyma. 

d.  Tracheids   and   medullary   ray. 
c.  f.     Tracheids. 

g.     Porous  duct. 
//.     Parenchyma. 

85.     (Fig.  70.)     GENTIANA.    Gentian.    U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.     Tinct.  comp.  40. 

Enzianwurzel,   Bitterwurzel,   Rother   Enzian,   Gelber  Enzian,   G. 
Racine  de  gentiane  (de  gentiane  jaune),  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Gentiana  lutea,  L.,  Gentianaceae. 

Dull  yellow  brown. 


200 


['(jwDKRED  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Very  faintly  fragrant. 

Very  bitter,  sweetish. 

Beneath  the  brownish  outer  corky  tissue  is  a  layer  of  thick- 
walled  collenchymatous  tissue  followed  by  the  large  celled,  loose- 
ly united,  collapsed  empty  parenchyma.  INIostly  typically  retic- 
ulate and  some  porous  yellowish  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  roots  of  allied  species.  Said  to  be  care- 
lessly adulterated  with  aconite  roots,  belladonna  roots,  white  hel- 
lebore and  orris  root. 


Fig.  70.    GENTIAN. 

a.  Parenchyma. 

b.  Collenchymatous   tissue. 

c.  Reticulate  ducts. 

d.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 
r.     Tracheids. 


Special  Description"  of  A''r:f;ET.\r.T.F  Powders. 


201 


Fig.  7U    GERANIUM. 

Parenchyma  with   starch  and  crystals. 

Aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

Thick-walled   porous   parenchyma. 

Cork. 

Starch  granules. 

Ducts  and  tracheids. 


Gera 


mum. 


U.S. 


36.    (Fig.  7J.)     GERANIUM. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 
Cranesbill,    E.     Fleckstorchschnabel,    G.     Racine    de     geranium 
macule,  Bec-de-grue  tachete,  Pied-de-corneille,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  of  Geranium  maculatiim,  L.,  Geraniaccce. 

Rather  dull  grayish  brown. 

Odorless. 

A'ery  astringent. 


202 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Some  cork  tissue ;  large  loosely  united  typical  parenchyma 
cells  with  rather  large,  simple,  oval  and  somewhat  irregular  starch 
granules,  hili'  and  stratification  indistinct.  Some  parenchyma 
cells  bearing  large  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Some 
thick-walled  porous,  somewhat  elongated  cells.  Reticulate  and 
porous  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  roots  of  Pofciitilla  Toniicntilla  and  Poly- 
f^oniuui  Bistorta. 


vA> 


U^UfM^ 


Fig.  72.    GLYCYRRHIZA. 

a.  Parenchyma. 

b.  Parenchyma   with   crystals  and   starch. 

c.  Bast. 

d.  Crystal  bearing  fibres. 

e.  Crystals. 

/.  Ducts  and  tracheids. 

g.  Cork  tissue. 


Special  Description  of  \"egetable  Powders.  203 

87.  (Fig.  72,)    GLYCYRRHIZA.    Glycyrrhiza.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.     ^leal. 

Liquorice,  Licorice,  Spanish  liquorice,  E.  Spanisches  Siissholz, 
G.     Reglisse,  Bois  de  reglisse,  Bois  douce,  Racine  douce,  Fr. 

The  roots  and  rhizomes  (underground  stems)  of  Glycyrrhiza 
glabra,  L.,  Leguminosae. 

Bright,  pale  yellow. 

Nearly  odorless,  somewhat  heavy. 

\'er\-   sweet,  slightly  pungent  and   somewhat  mucilaginous. 

Parenchyma  cells  medium  sized,  typical,  rather  thin-walled 
and  loosely  united  ;  filled  with  simple,  small  oval  starch  granules. 
Typical  bast  plentiful  accompanied  by  numerous  crystal  bearing 
fibres.  Numerous  parenchyma  cells  with  prismatic  crystals. 
Porous  and  reticulate  ducts.  The  unpeeled  licorice  shows  cork 
tissue. 

There  is  no  recognizable  histological  difference  between  the 
Spanish  and  Russian  varieties.  Cork  tissue  is  of  course  wanting 
in  the  peeled  article. 

88.  (Fig.  73.)     GOSSYPIUM  ROOT  BARK.    Cotton 

root  bark.     U.  S. 

•      Fl.  ex.  30. 

Baumwollrinde,  Baumwoll-Wurzelrinde,  G.  Ecorce  de  la  ra- 
cine  de  cotonnier,  Fr. 

The  root  bark  of  Gossypiiiiii  Jicrbaccnm,  L.,  Malvaceae. 

Light  brown. 

Odorless. 

Slightly  pungent,  astringent  and  mucilaginous. 

Some  large  celled  cork.  Thin-walled  inner  parenchyma  with 
simple  and  compound  starch  granules  and  aggregate  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate.  Numerous  long  slender  bast  cells.  Some  tissue 
with  reddish  brown  coloring  matter.     Porous  tracheids  and  ducts. 


204 


Powdered  Vegrtarle  Drugs. 


Fig.  73.    GOSSYPIUM. 

a.  Bast. 

b.  Cells  with  reddish  brown  contents. 

c.  Parenchyma. 

(/.  Cork,  lateral  view. 

c.  Cork,  vertical  view. 

/.  Tracheids   and   ducts. 

g.  Aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

h.  Starch  granules. 

89.     (Fig.  74.)     GRANATUM.     Pomegranate.    U.  S. 
Root  bark. 

Fl.  ex.  6o.     Coarse  powder. 
Bark  of  pomegranate,   E.     Granatrinde,   G.     Grenadier,   Ecorce 
de  balaustier,  Fr. 

The  root  bark  of  Puiiica  Granatiiin,  L.,  Lvthrariacese.     The 
stem  bark  is  also  used. 

Very  light  yellowish  brown. 

Odorless. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


205 


Bitter,  astringent. 

Outer  cork  tissue;  middle  parenchyma  small  celled,  collen- 
chymatous ;  inner  parenchyma  small  celled  bearing  numer- 
ous aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  arranged  in  rows ;  some 
prismatic  crystals.  A  few  rather  large,  thick-walled,  porous, 
more  or  less  branching,  colorless  sclerenchyma  cells.     No  bast. 

Histology  of  stem  bark  identical  with  that  of  root  bark. 
Adulterated  with  bark  of  Bu.rus  sempervirens  and  Ber- 
hcris  -c'til Claris. 


Fig.  74.    GRANATUM.    Root  Bark. 

a.  Parenchyma. 

b.  Parenchyma   and   sclerenchyma. 

f,  (i.     Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view,  with  crystals. 
e.     Parenchyma. 

/.     Medullary  ray. 

g.  Outer  bark. 
//.     Parenchyma. 


206 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


90.    GRANATUM.     Pomegranate.    Stem  bark. 

Names  and  origin  as  for  root  bark. 

Very  light  brown.  Odor  and  taste  as  for  root  bark.  His- 
tology identical  with  that  of  root  bark.  The  presence  of  spores 
(of  fungi  and  lichens)  and  hyphal  remnants  would  indicate  the 
stem  bark,  as  spot  fungi  and  lichens  do  not  grow  on  the  root  bark. 


Fig.  75.    GRINDELIA  ROBUST  A. 

Epidermis. 
Trichomes. 
Glandular  trichomes. 
Epidermis,  lateral  view. 
Pollen  grains. 

Parenchyma  cells  with  crystals. 
Epidermis,  lateral  view. 
Parenchyma. 

Parenchyma  with   aggregate  crystals. 
Tracheids. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  207 

91.     (Fi^.  75.)    GRINDELIA.    Grindelia.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Grindelie,  G.     Grindelie,  Fr. 

The  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Gnndclia  rohusta,  Nutt.,  and 
G.  sqiiarrosa,  Dunal,  Composite. 

Pale  yellowish  browni. 

Somewhat  fragrant,  camphoraceous. 

Bitter,  somewhat  pungent;  very  sticky  (resin). 

X'ertical  walls  of  upper  and  lower  epidermal  cells  somewhat 
wavy ;  stomata  on  both  surfaces.  Rigid,  many  celled  simple  tri- 
chomes  and  some  depressed  sessile,  many  celled  glandular  tri- 
chomes.  Prismatic  and  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 
Some  pollen  grains  typical  of  the  order  compositse. 

\'arious  related  plants  substituted  for  the  above.  Compare 
the  two  official  species.  The  above  description  refers  to  the  G. 
robitsta. 

92.    GUAIACUM.    Goaiacum  Wood.     (U.  S.  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Rasped. 

Guajakholz,  Pockholz,  Franzosenholz,  G.     Bois  de  gaiac,  Fr. 

The  wood  of  Guaiacuiii  officinale,  L.,  Zygophyllacese. 

Olive  green. 

Faintly  aromatic. 

Nearly  tasteless,  faintly  pungent. 

Medullary  rays  of  a  single  layer  of  cells,  about  six  cells  high. 
The  predominating  tissue  consists  of  very  thick  walled 
wood  fibres  through  which  are  scattered  large  resin  ducts  with 
olive  green,  sometimes  brown,  resin.  No  starch ;  prismatic  crys- 
tals are  sparingly  present. 

While  the  wood  is  rarely  if  ever  adulterated  the  resin  obtain- 
ed therefrom  is  frequently  adulterated. 


208 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  76.    GUARANA. 

a.  Parenchyma  with   pasty  starch. 

b.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

c.  Masses  of  pasty  starch. 

d.  Small  sclerenchyma  cells. 

93.     (Fig.  76.)     GUARANA.    Goarana.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  6o. 

Guarana,  G.  and  Fr. 

The  crushed,  partially  roasted  and  agglutinated  seeds  of 
PanUinia  sorbilis,  Martins,  Sapindaceae. 

Rather  bright  reddish  brown. 

Faintly  aromatic,  recalling  chocolate. 

Quite  bitter,  astringent. 

Medium  sized  to  rather  large  typical,  brown  or  brownish  pa- 
renchyma cells  filled  with  pasty  starch.  Some  rather  small,  brown 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  209 

sclerenchyma  cells.     Numerous  lumps  of  pasty  starch  of  the  di- 
mensions of  the  cell  lumen. 

Said  to  be  adulterated  with  starch  (cassava  starch)  and  oc- 
casionally with  cocoa  seeds. 

94,    HAEMATOXYLON.    Logwood.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.     Rasped. 
Blauholz,  Blutholz,  Campechenholz,  G.     Bois  de  Campeche,  Bois 
d'Inde,  Bois  de  sang,  Fr. 

The  wood  of  Hacmatoxylon  cainpechianum,  L.,  Leguminosae. 

Very  dark  purplish. 

Faintly  aromatic  or  fragrant. 

Faintlv  sweetish,  astringent,  colors  saliva  pinkish  red. 

Predominating  tissue  of  deep  brown,  thick-walled  wood 
fibres.  Medullary  rays  mostly  of  one,  also  of  two  and  three  lay- 
ers of  cells,  ten  to  fifteen  and  more  cells  high.  Large  resin  ducts 
with  deep  reddish  brown  resin.  Some  small  thin-walled  cells 
bearing  prismatic  crystals  of  calcivmi  oxalate.     No  starch. 

Compare  the  histology  of  the  different  varieties, — Cam- 
peachy,  Honduras,  St.  Domingo  and  Jamaica  logwoods. 

95.    (Fig.  77.)     HAMAMELIS.    Hamamclis.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 
Witch-hazel,  E.     Hamamelis,  Zauberhazel,  G.     Hamamelis,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Hainanielis  virginica,  L.,  Hamamelacese. 

Dull  green. 

Fragrant,  hay-like. 

Quite  astringent,  somewhat  bitter. 

Stomata  on  lower  surface  only,  vertical  wall  wavy.  Lower 
epidermal  cells  somewhat  smaller  than  upper.  Large  aggregate 
trichomes  of  six  to  eight  thick-walled  cells.  Scattered  through 
the  leaf  parenchyma  are  found  a  few  peculiar  branching  scler- 
enchyma cells  like  those  of  tea.  Prismatic  crystals  plentiful.  Pal- 
isade cells  and  spongy  tissue  cells  resin  bearing. 


210 


PovvDiiRL-D  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  77.     HAMAMELIS. 

a.  Lower  epidermis. 

b.  Upper  epidermis. 

c.  Sclerenchyma   cell   from  leaf  blade. 

c.  Stellate  trichome. 

d.  Parenchyma  with  crystals. 

e.  Parenchyma. 

/.  Crystal  bearing  fibres. 

g.  Prismatic  crystals. 

Ii.  Epidermis  of  leaf,  upper. 

96.    HEDEOMA.    Hedeoma. 

Entire  in  infusions. 


U.S. 


Pennyroyal,  E.  Amerikanischer  Polei,  G.  Pouliot  americain,  Fr. 
The  leaves  and  tops  of  Hedeoma  pulegioides,  Pers.,  Labiatae. 
Brownish  green. 
Mint-like,  aromatic. 
Pungent,  bitterish,  somewhat  cooling. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders,  211 

Leaves  with  stomata  above  and  below,  vertical  walls  of  epi- 
dermal cells  thin,  wavy.  Simple  trichomes  mostly  two  celled, 
rather  thick-walled,  somewhat  curved.  Grandular  trichomes 
typical  of  the  mints  (see  Mentha).  Stem  tissue  (epidermal,  col- 
lenchyma,  vascular,  parenchyma)  more  or  less  abundantly 
present. 

97.    HELLEBORUS.    Hellebore. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 
Black  hellebore,  Christmas  rose,  E.     Schwarze  Xieswurzel,  Weih- 
nachtswurzel,  Winterrcse,  G.     Ellibore  noir,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  HcUchorus  niger,  L.,  Ranuncu- 
lacese. 

Rather  light  brown. 

Somewhat  disagreeable,  rancid,  recalling  senega. 

Sweetish,  quite  bitter,  pungent. 

Outer  dark  cork  cells  followed  by  a  layer  of  dark  olive  green- 
ish cells.  Parenchyma  medium  sized,  typical,  containing  fat  and 
small  simple  spherical  starch  granules.  Numerous  reticulate 
ducts  and  tracheids  of  small  diameter. 

Hcllcbonis  z'iridis  is  histologically  similar  to  the  above. 

98.     (Fi^.  78.)     HUMULUS.    Hops.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.     Tinct.  20. 
Hopfen,  G.     Houblon,  Fr. 

The  fruit  scales  (strobiles)  of  Huinulus  Lupuhis,  L.,  Urti- 
cacese. 

Light  yellowish  brown. 

Peculiar,  aromatic ;  valerian-like  with  age. 

Bitter,  somewhat  astringent. 

Vertical  w^alls  of  the  epidermal  cells  of  strobile  scales  wavy; 
upper  epidermal  cells  larger  than  lower ;  stomata  on  lower  sur- 
face only.  Scale  parenchyma  typically  spongy,  bearing  small  ag- 
gregate crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Single  celled,  simple  tri- 
chomes. Large  bright,  yellow  glands  (lupulin).  Insect  (aphidae) 
remnants  are  usuallv  also  found. 


212 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  78.    HUMULUS. 

a.  Gland  (lupulin). 

b.  Epidermal  cells. 

c.  Epidermal   tissue  with   stomata. 

d.  Trichomes. 

e.  Parenchyma   with  crystals. 

/.  Aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

g.  Spongy  tissue  cells  with  crystals. 

99.     (Fi^.  79.)     HYDRANGEA.    Hydrangea. 

Fl.  ex.  6o. 
Hortensie,  G. 

The  roots  of  Hydrangea  arhorcscens,  L.,  Saxifragaceae. 

Pale  brownish  gray. 

Nearly  odorless ;  recalling  taraxacum. 

Slightly  sweetish  and  pimgent. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


2lj 


Some  cork  tissue.  Parenchyma  cells  medium  sized  typical 
to  rather  small  and  elongated,  some  with  bundles  of  longer  and 
shorter  acicular  crystals  (raphides)  of  calcium  oxalate.  Numer- 
ous porous  tracheids ;  some  bast  and  sclerenchymatous  tracheids. 


Fig  79.    HYDRANGEA. 

Parenchyma  with  raphides. 

Parenchyma  with  larger  raphides. 

Cork  tissue. 

Tracheids. 
e,  f.     Acicular  crystals. 
g.     Bast. 
h.     Sclerenchymatous  tracheids. 

JOO.     (Fig.  80.)     HYDRASTIS.    Hydrastis.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  60. 
Golden-seal,  Yellow-root,  Yellow  puccoon.  Orange-root,   Indian 
dye,    Indian    tumeric,    E.     Canadische    Gelbwurzel,    G.     Racine 
orange,  Sceau  d'or,  Fr. 


214 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Hydrastis  canadensis,  L., 
Ranunculaceae. 

Bright  Lemon  yellow. 

Soil  odor,  peculiar. 

Very  bitter. 

Outer  rather  dark  cork  tissue.  Typical  rather  thin-walled  pa- 
renchyma ;  outer  parenchyma  somewhat  collenchymatous ;  small 
simple,  spherical  starch  granules.  Porous,  not  large,  ducts  and 
tracheids.  Some  parenchyma  cells  and  most  of  the  ducts  con- 
tain a  bright  vellow  resin. 


Fig,  80.     HYDRASTIS. 

b.  Parenchyma  with  starch. 

c.  Cork. 

d.  Tracheids. 

c.     Parenchyma. 

f.     Parenchyma,   longitudinal  view. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


215 


Said  to  be  adulterated  with  curcuma,  serpentaria,  cypripe- 
dium  and  several  other  roots. 


Fig.  81.    HYOSCYAMUS.     Leaf. 

a,  b.     Epidermal  tissues  and  trichomes. 
c,  d.     Parenchyma. 

e.  Spongy  tissue  cells. 

f.  Prismatic  crystals. 

lOJ.     (Fig,  SI.)     HYOSCYAMUS.    Hyoscyamus,     U.S. 

Leaves. 
Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  60. 

Henbane,  E.     Bilsenkraut,  G.     Jusquiame  noir,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  the  second  year's  growth  of  Hyoscyamns  ni- 
ger,  Solanacege. 


2l6 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Dull  g^rayish  green. 

Narcotic,  heavy,  especially  when  moist. 

Bitterish,  somewhat  pungent. 

Leaf  epidermis  with  stomata  above  and  below ;  vertical  walls 
thin,  wavy.  Large,  simple,  many  celled,  thin-walled,  more  or 
less  collapsed  trichomes.  Typical  spongy  tissue.  Prismatic 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  quite  numerous. 

Adulterated  with  leaves  of  allied  species,  and  leaves  of  stra- 
monium, digitalis,  belladonna  and  verbascum. 


Fig.  82.    HYOSCYAMUS.     Seed. 

a.  Sclerenchyma  cells  of  seed  coat. 

b.  Sclerenchyma,  vertical  view. 

c.  Outer  endosperm  tissue. 

d.  Endosperm. 

e.  Endosperm   tissue   with   proteid   granules   and  oil. 
/.  Parenchyma. 


Special  Description'  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


217 


J02.     (Fig.  82.)     HYOSCYAMUS.    Hyoscyamus.    U.S. 

Seeds. 
Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  40. 
Names  and  origin  as  for  loi. 

Ash  gray. 

Odorless. 

Bitter,  somewhat  pungent. 

The  outer  layer  of  seed  coat  consists  of  large,  irregularly 
rounded,  brownish,  thick-walled  sclerenchyma  cells,  the  outer 
wall  being  thin,  pores  not  noticeable,  filled  with  a  granular  pro- 
teid  substance.  Endosperm  cells  not  very  thick-walled  nor  por- 
ous, filled  with  granular  proteid  matter  and  fat. 


t^Mi 


Fig.  83*.    IGNATIA. 

a.  Epidermal  cells,  vertical  view. 

b.  Endosperm. 

c.  Endosperm. 


2i8  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

J03.     (Fig.  83.)     IGNATIA.    Ignatia. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  60. 

Bean  of  St.  Ignatius,  E.       Ignazbohne,  G.       Feve  de  Saint-Ig- 
nace,  Feve  igasurique,  Fr. 
nace,  Feve  igasurique,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Strychiios  Igiiatia,  Lind.,  Logoniaccae. 

Very  light  brown. 

Nearly  odorless,  smoky  odor. 

Very  bitter,  mucilaginous. 

Histology  much  like  that  of  Xux  vomica  buttons.  Trichomes 
usually  wanting,  when  present  not  expanded  at  base.  Epiderm- 
al cells  small,  with  granular  contents.  Endosperm  tissus,  thick- 
walled,  cells  filled  with  granular  proteid  matter. 

104.    CFig.  84.)    ILLICIUM.    Illicium.    (U.  S.,  1890.) 

Fine  powder. 

Star  anise,  Chinese  anise,  E.  Sternanis,  G.  Badiane,  Anise 
etoile,  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Illiciuiu  I'erum,  Hooker,  Magnoliacese. 

Reddish  brown. 

Fragrantly  aromatic,  like  anise. 

Quite  acid,  sweet,  pungent. 

Epidermal  cells  of  pericarp  polygonal,  w^ith  stomata.  Brown 
tissue ;  parenchyma  with  oil  globules ;  numerous  elongated,  thick- 
walled  sclerenchyma  cells.  Endosperm  cells  thin-walled,  with 
fat  and  proteid  granules. 

Adulterated  with  fruits  of  Illicium  rcUgiosuui,  known  as 
Japanise  star  anise.  The  powder  is  of  a  lighter  color.  The 
sclerenchyma  fibres  of  the  endocarp  are  smaller,  walls  thinner. 
Boiled  in  dilute  potassium  hydrate  solution  the  powder  of  Jap- 
anise star  anise  turns  yellowish  brown  while  the  powder  of  true 
anise  turns  a  deep  blood  red.  Illiciitin  floridanum  differs  histo- 
logically ;  compare  epidermal  sclerenchyma. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  219 


Fig,  84*.    ILLICIUM. 

a.  Two   stone   cells   forming  testa   of  seeds. 

b.  End  view  of  a. 

c.  Elongated    sclerenchyma. 

d.  Sclerenchyma. 

e.  Oil  bearing  endosperm  cells. 

/.     Deep   reddish  brown  cells  of  pericarp. 

JOS.     (Fig.  85.)    INULA.    Elecampane.    (U.  S.,  J 890.) 

Rather  coarse  powder. 

Alantwtirzel,  Helenenwurzal,  (i.       Racine  d'annee,  Annee  com- 
mune (officinale),  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Inula  Hclcniimi,  Merat,  Compositse. 

Light  brown. 

Camphoraceous,  terebinthine,  recalHng  calamus. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

Some  cork  tissue.     Outer  parenchyma  of  typical,  thin-walled. 


220 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


collapsed  cells  bearing  inulin.  Rather  large  or  medium  sized  por- 
ous and  reticulate  ducts.  Inner  parenchyma  of  smaller,  elongated 
cells.     Resin  ducts  not  noticeable  in  powder.     No  starch. 

Allied  plants  are  Liiila  sqiiarrosa,  Piilicaria  dysentcrica  and 
Carlina  acauUs. 


Fig.  85.    INULA. 

a,  b.     Parenchyma  with  inulin. 

c.  Parenchyma   free  from  inuHn. 

d.  Reticulate  ducts. 
c.     Cork. 

J06.     (Fig.  86.)     IPECACUANHA.    Ipecacuanha.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  8o.     Very  fine  powder. 

Ipecac,  E.     Brechwurzel,  Ruhrwurzel,  G.     Ipecacuanha,  Racine 
bresilienne,  Fr. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


221 


Fig.  86.    IPECAC. 


a.  Parenchyma  with  raphides. 

b.  Cork. 

c.  Tracheids. 

d.  Phloem  parenchj'ma. 

e.  Starch  granules. 

/.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 


The  roots  of  Cep/iaclis  Ipccaciiaiilia.  A.  Richard,  Rubiaceae. 

Brownish  ash  gray. 

Heavy,  nauseous,  recaiUng  Indian  hemp. 

Bitterish,  somewhat  pungent. 

Thinwalled  cork  tissue.  Parenchyma  medium  sized,  typi- 
cal ;  cells  filled  with  compound  starch  granules,  some  with  acicu- 
lar  crystals  (raphides)  of  calcium  oxalate.     Porous  tracheids. 

IvFay  be  adulterated  with  starches,  flour,  almond  meal;  also 


222 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


with  roots  of  related  species.  The  Carthagena  ipecac  differs 
from  the  above  (Rio  ipecac)  in  that  the  simple  starch  granules 
are  larger;  the  end  opening  of  the  tracheids  is  oval  in  form  in- 
stead of  circular,  differences  which  are,  however,  not  readily 
detected  in  the  powders.  Other  false  ipecacs  are  mostly  quite 
different  histologically ;  compare  especially  ducts,  tracheids, 
crvstals  and  starches. 


Fig.  87. 

a.  Large  crystals. 

b.  Parenchyma  with  starch. 

c.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view 

d.  Broken  crystals. 

e.  Reticulate  ducts. 
/.  Starch  granules. 


IRIS  FLORENTINA. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  223 

107.    (Fi^.  87.)    IRIS  FLORENTINA.    Florentine  Orris. 

Tinct.,  coarse  powder.     Fine  powder. 

Orris  root,  white  flag,  E.  Veilchenwurzel,  G.  Iris  de  Florence, 
Fr. 

The  peeled  rhizomes  of  Iris  florcntina,  L.,  Iridaceae. 

Very  light,  brownish,  almost  cream  color. 

Fragrant,  recalling  violets. 

Bitterish,  pungent. 

Parenchyma  cells  large,  thickwalled,  loosely  united,  filled 
with  rather  large,  simple,  oval,  irregularly  pearshaped  starch 
granules,  narrowed  end  mostly  truncate,  hili  and  stratification 
indistinct.  Some  parenchyma  cells  with  large,  long,  rod-shaped 
prismatic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Typically  reticulate  ducts. 
No  cork  tissue. 

Adulterated  with  Iris  pallida,  I.  germanica,  I.  pseudacorus, 
and  /.  foetidissima.  The  former  two  are  preferred  in  Germany 
and  Austria.     Histologically  they  resemble  Florentine  orris. 

108.    (Fig.  88.)    IRIS.    Iris.    U.  S.,  J 890. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Blue  flag,  water  flag,  E.  Amerikanischer  Schwertel,  Verschie- 
denfarbige  Schwertlilie,  G.  Rhizome  d'iris  varie,  flambe  variee, 
Glaieul  bleu,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  of  Iris  versicolor,  L.,  Iridaceae. 

Rather  light  brown. 

Odor  of  fenugreek. 

Sweetish,  astringent,  somewhat  pungent. 

Epidermis  of  suberized  cells.  Hypodermal  cell  thickwalled. 
Parenchyma  cells  somewhat  elongated.  Many  of  the  hypoder- 
mal and  parenchyma  cells  filled  with  a  deep  brown  resin.  Mostly 
porous  ducts;  some  reticulate  and  spiral. 

Iris  virginica  and  /.  verna  are  related  plants  and  have  simi- 
lar properties. 


224 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  88.     IRIS  VERSICOLAR. 

a.  Parenchyma,  resin  cell. 

b.  g.     Hypodermal  cells.  ' 

c.  Parenchyma,    longitudinal    view. 

d.  Reddish  brown   cork  cells. 
c.     Reticulate  duct. 

/.     Porous  duct. 

g.     Hypodermal  cells. 

J09.    (Fig.  89.)     JALAPA.    Jalap.    U.S. 
El.  ex.  6o. 

Jalapenwurzel,  G.    Jalap,  Fr. 

The  tuberotis  roots  of  Ipoinoca   Parga.    Hayne,   Convolvi". 
lacese. 

Light  grayish  brown. 

Smoky  odor  dtte  to  method  of  drying  tubers. 

Sweetish,  pungent. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


225 


Fig.  89.    JALAPA. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch.  ■    '    '    '" 

b.  Milk  fluid  bearing  cells,  forming  the  laticiferous  ducts. 

c.  Cork,  lateral  view. 

d.  Outer   crystal  bearing  parenchyma. 
c.  Starch  bearing  parenchyma. 

/.  Large  porous  ducts. 

g.  Starch   granules. 

/;.  Aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

i.  Outer  cork  tissue   with   reddish  coloring  matter. 

Considerable  cork  tissue  present.  Outer  parenchyma  small, 
with  many  rather  small  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 
Inner  parenchyma  cells  quite  large,  thinwalled,  otherwise  typi- 
cal ;  filled  with  simple  and  compound  starch  granules,  compound 
granules  mostly  in  twos  and  threes,  rarely  fours;  hili  quite  dis- 
tinct. Laticiferous  ducts  consist  of  large  rectangular  cells  united 
end  to  end  with  the  transverse  walls  still  distinct.     Ducts  few, 


226 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


porous,  some  quite  large,  some  small.     Some  of  the  starch  may 
be  pasty. 

Adulterated  with  roots  of  related  species,  immature  jalapa, 
exhausted  roots,  flour  and  starch. 


a.  Parenchyma  cells  with  coloring  matter  and  crystals. 

b.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal   view. 

c.  Bast  fibres. 

4.  Cork,  profile  view. 

■e.  Aggregate   crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

no.    (Fig.  90.)     JUGLANS.    Butternut-bark.     (U.  S.,  1890.) 
Fl.  ex.  6o.     Ex.  30. 

Butternussrinde,  Graue  Wallnussrinde,  G.     Ecorce  de  noyer  gris, 

Fr. 

The  inner  bark  of  the  roots  of  JugJans  cincrca,  L.,  Juglan- 
dacese. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


227 


Very  dark  brown. 

Somewhat   aromatic. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

More  or  less  of  the  outer  bark  is  usually  present,  which  con- 
sists of  suberized  cells  bearing  granular  dark  brown  coloring 
matter.  Inner  bark  perenchyma  of  rather  small,  loosely  united 
cells,  many  of  which  contain  a  deep  brown  resin  or  aggregate 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Typical  long,  thickwalled,  fineb' 
porous  bast  fibres  are  plentifully  present. 

The  bark  of  Juglaiis  rcgia  (English  walnut)  and  /.  nigra 
(black  walnut)  is  similarly  used,  but  perhaps  not  often  as  an 
adulterant  of  the  above. 


Fig.  91*.    KAMALA. 

a.     Deep  reddish  brown  glandular   trichomes. 

/'.     Aggregate  simple  trichomes. 

c.     Gland  decolorized  with  a  weak  solution  of  potassium    hydrate. 


228  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

in.     (Fig.9J.)     KAMALA.    Kamala.     (U.  S.,  J890.) 

Naturally  a  rather  coarse  powder. 

Kamala,  E.,  G.,  Fr. 

Red,  with  brown. 

Odorless. 

Tasteless;  sandy,  g^ritty. 

Kamala  consists  of  glandular  and  aggregate  trichomas. 
The  glandular  predominate;  they  are  deep  red,  multicellular. 
The  aggregate  trichomes  consist  of  single  celled,  rather  thick- 
walled,  more  or  less  bent,  light  brownish  hairs.  Indistinct 
epidermal  remnants  are  present  also,  and  some  sand  is  normally 
present. 

Quite  generally  adulterated;  usually  with  a  fine  sand  and 
colored  starch  (a  maranta-like  starch).  A  pure  article  is  difficult 
to  obtain.  Adulteration  very  easily  detected  microscopically  be- 
cause the  kamala  elements  are  very  characteristic. 

112.    (Fig.  92.)     KRAMERIA.    Peruvian  Rhatany.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.    Tinct.  40. 

Payta  rhatany,  E.  Peruanische  (Payta)  Ratanhia,  G.  Ratanhia, 
Fr.' 

The  roots  of  Kramcria  triandra,  Ruiz  et  Pavon,  Polygalaceos. 

Bright  red  brown. 

Somewhat  musty  odor. 

Very  astringent,  saliva  red. 

Outer  bark  of  thinwalled  cork  bearing  reddish  brown  color- 
ing matter;  some  of  the  cells  empty.  Inner  bark  parenchyma 
cells  with  simple  and  compound  starch  granules,  reddish  brown 
coloring  matter  and  small  variable  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate,  not  unlike  those  of  cinnamon.  Porous  ducts  and 
tracheids.  Typical,  rather  short,  mostly  isolated  bast  cells  with 
walls  rather  thick. 

Adulterated  with  roots  of  related  species. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  229 


Fig.  92.    KRAMERIA.    Peruvian. 

a.  Bast. 

b.  Crystal  bearing  cells. 

c.  Outer  cork,  lateral  viev/. 

d.  Parenchyma  with  starch. 

c.  Cells  with  red  coloring  matter. 

/.  Crystals  and   starch  granules. 

g.  Tracheids  and  porous  ducts. 

113.     (Fig.  93.)     KRAMERIA.    Savanilla  Rhatany.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.    Tinct.  40. 

Purple  rhatany,  E.    Savanilla  (Neugranada)  Ratanhia,  G. 

The  roots  of  Krameria  Ixina,  L.,  Polygalacese. 

Odor  and  taste  as  for  Pertivian  rhatany. 

Color  of  powder  a  deeper  red. 

The  general  histological  characteristics  much  like  those  of 
the  Peruvian  rhatany.     Parenchyma  cells  larger;  cork  and  par- 


230 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


enchyma  richer  in  the  bright  reddish  brown  coloring  matter; 
starch  is  wanting;  the  bast  cells  are  longer,  larger  and  walls 
somewhat  thicker.     Porous  ducts  are  larger. 
Adulterations  as  for  Peruvian  rhatanv. 


Fig.  93.    KRAMERIA.     Savanilla. 

a.  Bast. 

b.  Cells  with  red  coloring  matter. 

c.  Outer  cork,  lateral  view. 

d.  Parenchyma   with   resin. 

e.  Porous  ducts  and  tracheids. 
/.  Crystal  bearing  cells. 

n4.    (Fig.  94.)     LAPPA.    Burdock.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  6o. 
Klettenwurzel,  G.    Bardane,  Glouteron,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Arctium  Lappa,  L.,  Compositse. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


231 


Light  grayish  brown. 

Somewhat  heavy,  nauseous. 

Sweetish,  bitter,  mucilaginous. 

Outer  cork  tissue  of  brown  cells.  Parenchyma  cells  thin- 
walled,  rather  loosely  united,  somewhat  elongated,  with  inulin. 
Large  and  smaller  porous  and  recticulate  ducts.  A  few  resin 
ducts.     Starch  and  crystals  wanting. 

Ducts  and  tracheids  should  be  sparingly  present;  if  abund- 
ant it  indicates  that  the  inert  older  roots  are  used. 


Fig.  94.    LAPPA. 

a,  b.     Parenchj-ma  with  inulin. 

c.  Cork. 

d.  Large  porous   duct. 

e.  Smaller  porous  duct. 


232 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  95»    LEPTANDRA. 

a.  b.     Parenchj'ma  with  resin  and  coloring  matter. 

b.  Parenchyma  with   starch. 

c.  Parenchyma. 

d.  Parenchyma,   longitudinal  view. 
c.     Spiral  duct. 

/.     Phloem  tissue. 

g.     Tracheids. 

h.     Epidermal    cells    of   rootlets. 

115.     (Fig.  95.)     LEPTANDRA.     Leptandra.     U.S. 
Fl.  ex.  60. 
Culver's  root,  Culver's  physic,  black-root,  E.     Leptandra  Wur- 
zel,  G.     Racine  de  leptandra  (de  veronique,  de  Virginie),  Fr. 

The  rhizome  and  roots  of  Veronica  virginica,  L.,  Scroplui- 
lariaceae. 

Grav-brown. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  233 

Odorless. 

Bitter,  feebly  pungent. 

Some  cork  tissue  from  the  rhizome.  Epidermal  cells  of 
rootlets,  with  outer  walls  dark  and  greatly  thickened.  Root 
parenchyma  cells  rectangular,  elongated,  with  some  very  small 
simple  spherical  starch  granules  and  smoky  brown  resin.  Num- 
erous tracheids,  some  spiral  ducts.  Larger,  more  typical  paren- 
chyma, with  small  spherical  starch  granules,  of  rhizome. 

116.    LINUM.    Flaxseed.    U.S. 

Flaxseed  cake  (cake  meal).     Flaxseed  meal. 

Linseed,  E.  Leinsamen,  Flachssamen,  G.  Semence  (Graine)  de 
lin,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Liiinm  usitatissimwn,  L.,  Linaceac. 

Light  brown  to  brown. 

Linseed  oil  odor;  rancid  odor  when  old. 

Bland,  oily,  bitterish,  somewhat  mucilaginous. 

Epidermal  cells  prismatic,  with  mucilage.  A  layer  of  elon- 
gated sclerenchyma  fibres.  A  layer  of  small  rectangular,  deep 
brown  cells.  Endosperm  cells  thin-walled,  filled  with  proteid 
granules  and  fat.  No  starch  in  ripe  seeds.  In  the  unripe  seeds 
the  perisperm  parenchyma  cells  contain  simple  spherical  starch 
granules  mingled  with  the  oil  globules. 

The  meal  may  be  adulterated  with  flour,  cornmeal,  starches 
and  ground  cake  meal. 

n7.    (Fig.  96.)    LOBELIA.    Lobelia.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.    Tinct.  40. 

Indian  tobacco,  E.  Lobelienkraut,  G.  Herbe  de  lobelie  enflee, 
Fr. 

The  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Lobelia  inflata,  L.,  Lobeli- 
acese. 

Grayish  green. 


234 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Frao;rant ;  heavy,  narcotic,  recalling  tobacco. 

Pungent. 

Vertical  walls  of  upper  epidermal  cells  of  the  leaf  linear, 
thick,  very  porous ;  cuticle  linearly  marked.  Lower  epidermal 
tissue  with  stomata,  vertical  walls  thin,  wavy.  Large,  single 
celled,  simple,  rather  thinwalled,  conical  trichomes,  upper  por- 
tion narrowed,  with  slight  cuticular  markings.  Prismatic  crys- 
tals of  calcium  oxalate. 


Fig.  96.     LOBELIA. 

a.  Epidermal  tissue,  lower. 

b.  Upper  epidermis. 

c.  Trichomes. 

d.  Epidei-mis,  lateral  view. 

e.  Bast  fibre. 

/.  Crystal  bearing  cells. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  235 

118.    (Fig.  78,  a.)    LUPULINUM.    Lopulin.    U.S. 

Aloderately  fine  powder. 

Lupulin,  Hopfenmehl,  G.     Lupiiline,  Lupulite,  Fr. 

The  glands  from  tlie  strobiles  of  Huniuhis  Lupuhis,  L., 
Urticaceas. 

Dull  reddish  brown. 

Hop  odor,  recalling  valerian. 

Bitter. 

The  powder  consists  of  the  bright  golden  yellow,  somewhat 
pearshaped,  many  celled  glandular  structures,  one  of  which  is 
shown  in  profile  view  in  Fig.  78,  a. 

Lupulin  should  contain  only  a  small  amount  of  sand,  vege- 
table tissue  and  insect  (aphidse)  remnants.  It  is  frequently  adul- 
terated with  sand.  It  deteriorates  rapidly.  Old  material  changes 
to  an  orange  yellow  and  the  odor  becomes  heavier,  almost  cheese- 
like. 

n9.    (Fi?.  97.)     LYCOPODIUM.    Lycopodiom.    U.S. 

Fine  powder. 

Vegetable  sulphur,  E.  Barlappsamen,  Streupulver,  Hexenmehl, 
Blitzpulver,  G.     Lycopode,  Saufre  vegetale,  Fr. 

The  spores  of  Lycopodinm  clai'atnm,  L.,  Lycopodiacese. 

Very  bright  pale  yellow.     Very  mobile. 

Odorless. 

Tasteless. 

The  powder  consists  almost  wholly  of  the  individual  spores 
showing  the  facets  of  union  with  two  other  spores.  Rarely  two 
and  three  still  united.     Outer  spore  membrane  finely  reticulate. 

Adulterated  with  spores  of  related  species,  talc,  gyp- 
sum, starch,  flour,  dextrin,  pollen  grains  of  conifers,  sulphur, 
turmeric. 


236 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs, 


Fig    97.*    LYCOPODIUM. 


J20.    (Fig.  98.)    MACIS.    Mace.    (U.  S.,  J890.) 

Moderately  fine. 

Muskatbliithe,  INIacis,  G.     Macis,  Fleur  de  muscade,  Fr. 

The  arillode  of  the  seeds  of  Myristica  fragra)is,  L.,  jNIyris- 
ticaceae. 

Light  yellowish  brown ;  oily. 

Delicate  nutmeg  odor. 

Pungent,  somewhat  bitter. 

Epidermal  cells  elongated  with  diagonal  end  walls,  cuticle 
very  thick.  In  transverse  view  epidermal  cells  appear  somewhat 
tangentially  flattened.  Parenchyma  cells  rather  small  and  thin- 
walled,  closely  united  and  filled  with  fat  and  granules  of  amylo- 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


237 


dextrin,  no  starch.  Distributed  through  the  parenchyma  are 
much  larger  resin  bearing  cells.  Vascular  tissue  very  deficient 
(reticulate  ducts). 

Adulterated  with  wild  or  false  mace,  which  dififers  in  that  the 
epidermal  cells  in  transverse  view  appear  rectangular,  somewhat 
elongated  vertically,  never  tangentially  flattened.  Amylodextrin 
granules  larger,  more  rectangular.  With  concentrated  sulfuric 
acid  or  potassium  hydrate  solution  false  mace  turns  deep  red, 
true  mace  yellowish.     (Fig.  99.) 


Fig.  98.*    MACE.    True. 

a.  Transverse   view    of   epidermis,   parenchyma    and   resin    cells    (c). 

b.  Longitudinal  profile  view  of  epidermal  cells. 

d.  Vertical  view  of  epidermal  cells. 

e.  Amylodextrin   granules. 


238 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  99.*    MACE.     False. 

a.  Transverse   view  of   epidermal  cells,    parenchyma   and   resin   cell. 

b.  Longitudinal  view  of  epidermis,  parenchyma  and  resin  cells. 
d.  Vertical  view  of  epidermal  cells. 

c.  Amylodextrin  granules. 

J2J.     (pig.  JOO.)     MATICO.    (U.S.,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  30. 
Matico,  E.  G.  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Piper  angustifoUuuu  L.,  Piperacese. 

Brownish  green. 

Faintly  aromatic,  recalling-  chamomille. 

Somewhat  ptmgent  and  bitterish. 

Epidermal  cells  above  and  below  polygonal ;  upper  much 
larger,  vertical  walls  thicker.  Stomata  on  lower  surface  only. 
Simple,  three  to  five  celled,  thick-walled  trichomes,  somewhat 
widened  at  the  transverse  sept?e.     A  hypoderm  of  a  single  layer 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


239 


of  tangentially  flattened  cells.  Resin  glands  in  the  leaf  parenchma. 
Adulterated  with  leaves  of  related  species  and  leaves  of  oth- 
er plants  which  all  differ  considerably  histologically.     Compare 
trichomes. 


Fig.  100.    MATICO. 

a.  Lower  epidermis. 

b.  Trichomes. 

c.  Leaf  gland  with  resin,  lateral  view. 

d.  Resin  gland. 

c.  L'Pper   epidermis. 

/.  L'pper   epidermis,   lateral   view. 

g.  Hypoderm. 

122.    MATRICARIA.     German  Chamomile.    U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Kaniillenblumen,   G.        Flenrs   de   camomille  commune    (d'AlIe- 
magne),  Fr. 

The    flowering    heads  of    Matricaria  ChamomiUa,  L.,  Com- 
posit?e. 


240 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Greenish. 

Fragrant,  chamomille  odor. 

Bitter. 

Pollen  grains  with  prominent  conical  projections  of  exine; 
three  distinct  pores. 

Adulterated  with  flowers  of  Authcmis  arz'cnsis,  Mantta  co- 
tula  and  other  related  plants.     Compare  with  Roman  chamomille. 


Fig.  JOI.    MENISPERMUM. 

a.  Bast. 

b.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

c.  Large  porous  duct. 

d.  Tracheids  and  medullary  rays. 

c.  Outer   tissue  with   sclerenchyma  cells    (b). 

f.  Parenchyma    (pith)    with   starch. 

g.  Thickwalled  porous  cells. 
h.  Cork. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  241 

J23.     (Fig.  lOJ.)     MENISPERMUM.    Menispermum. 
(U.S.,  1890.) 

FI.  ex.  60. 

Canadian  moon  seed,  yellow  parilla,  E.  Canadisches  Mondkorn, 
G.     IMenisperme  du  Canada,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  rootlets  of  Alenispcrinum  caiiadense,  L., 
Menispermaceas. 

Ash  gray. 

Faint  soil  odor;  nearly  odorless. 

Bitter. 

Outer  layer  of  subersized  tissue.  Rather  small-celled  polyg- 
onal hypodermal  tissue  through  which  are  scattered  a  few  scler- 
enchyma  cells.  Typical  bast  tissue ;  tracheids  and  very  large 
porous  ducts  with  medullary  rays.  Large  celled  pith  with  some 
simple  starch  granules  resembling  those  of  corn.  Some  thick- 
walled  very  coarse  parenchyma. 

J24.    (Fig.  102.)    MENTHA  PIPERITA.    Peppermint.    U.  S. 

Pfefferminze,  G.     Mentha  poivree,  Fr. 

The  leafy  tops  of  Moitlia  piperita,  L.,  Labiatze. 

Green. 

Aromatic,  somewhat  fragrant.     Mint  odor. 

Pungent;  very  cooling. 

Leaves  with  stomata  above  and.  below,  few  above ;  vertical 
walls  thin,  wavy.  Large,  long,  rather  thick-walled,  three  to  sev- 
en celled  simple  trichomes  with  short  linear  to  warty  cuticular 
thickenings.  Large  bladdery  glandular  trichomes  with  six  to 
eight  secreting  cells.  Small  secreting  trichomes  with  a  single 
terminal  secreting  cell.  Besides  this  there  is  present  stem  tissue, 
as  epidermis,  collenchyma,  parenchyma,  tracheids  and  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  leaves  of  several  varieties  of  M.  piperita 
and  with  spearmint. 


242 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs 


Scale     .n     Ml 

Fig.  102.*    MENTHA  PIPERITA. 

a.  Upper  epidermal  cells. 

b.  Lower  epidermis. 

c.  Trichomes,  simple,  showing  cuticular  markings    (a  medium  sized 
trichome). 

d.  Gland,  top  view. 

c.     Small   glandular   trichome. 

125.    MENTHA  VIRIDIS.    Spearmint.    U.  S. 

Coarse  powder. 

Griine  Minze,  Romische  Minze,  G.     ]\Ienthe  vert,   ^lentha   ro- 
maine,  Baume  vert,  Fr. 

The  leafy  tops  of  McntJia  viridis,  L.,  Labiatse. 

Green. 

Very  fragrantly  aromatic. 

Pungent,  less  cooling  than  M.  piperita. 

Vertical  walls  of  upper  and  lower  epidermal  cells  of  leaves 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


243 


wavy.  Upper  epidermal  cells  somewhat  larger  with  only  com- 
paratively few  stomata.  Simple  trichomes  rather  thick-walled 
but  fewer  and  shorter  than  in  peppermint ;  cuticular  markings 
less  prominent  and  less  decidedly  linear,  more  warty.  Glandular 
trichomes  are  similar  to  those  of  peppermint. 

According  to  several  authorities  the  glandular  trichomes  of 
peppermint  are  distinguished  at  once  by  the  menthol  crystals,  a 
characteristic  which  does  not  seem  to  be  marked. 


//. 


Fig.  103.    METHYSTICUM. 

Bast  cell. 
vScIerenchyma. 
Parenchyma   with  crystals. 
Parenchyma  with  starch. 
Parenchyma,   longitudinal   view. 
Reticulate  ducts. 
Tracheids. 
Starch  granules. 
Scalariform  duct. 


244  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

126.     (Fig.  J03.)     METHYSTICUM.    Methysticum. 
Fl.  ex.  ^o. 

Ava,  ava  Kava,  Kava  Kava. 

The  roots  of  Piper  Methysticum,  Foerster,  Piperaceae. 

Light  brown  to  very  Hght  brown. 

Somewhat  fragrant. 

Pungent,  bitter,  somewhat  astringent. 

Parenchyma  cells  typical,  medium  sized,  filled  with  rather 
large  compound  starch  granules,  having  distinct  hili.  Scalari- 
form,  reticulate  and  porous  ducts.  Brownish  sclerenchymatous, 
porous,  bast  fibres;  nearly  colorless  bast  fibres.  Sclerenchy- 
matous, very  porous  tracheids.  Typical  brownish,  thickwalled 
porous  sclerenchyma  fibres.  Epidermal  cells  polygonal,  walls 
porous,  containing  crystalline  substances.  Elongated  parenchy- 
matous cells  with  deep  brown  resinous  matter. 

J27.     (Fig.  104.)     MEZEREUM.    Mezereon.    U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Seidelbastrinde,  Kellerhalsrinde,  G.  Ecorce  de  mezereon,  de 
garou,  de  laureole,  de  thymele,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Daphne  Mezercum,  L.,  Thymelacese. 

Very  light  brownish  gray. 

Odorless. 

Very  pungent,  developes  very  gradually. 

Brown  to  nearly  colorless  cork  tissue  and  very  numerous 
very  slender,  greatly  elongated,  thinwalled,  bast  fibres.  Paren- 
chyma cells  large,  thinwalled,  collapsed,  empty.  Some  smaller, 
thicker  outer  bark  parenchyma  with  chlorophyll  remnants  and 
resinous  matter. 

The  bark  of  several  other  species  is  used. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  245 


Fig.  J 04. 

MEZERIUM 

a. 

Bast. 

b. 

Cork,  vertical  view. 

c. 

Parenchyma. 

d. 

Cork,  lateral  view. 

e. 

Parenchyma. 

J28.     (Fi^.  105.)     MYRICA.    Wax-Myrtle. 

Fl  ex.  60.     Very  fine  powder. 

(Wachsbaiim,  Wachsgagel,  G.     Arbre  a  suif,  Fr.) 

The  bark  of  Myrica  ccrifera,  L.,  Myricacese. 

Rather  dull  cinnamon  brown. 

F'aintjy  aromatic,  not  agreeable. 

Bitter,  slightly  pungent  and  astringent. 

Bark   parenchyma    of  brown    cells   bearing   some   simple, 
spherical  starch  granules.     Thickwalled  porous  bast  fibres  ac- 


246 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


companied  by  crystal-bearing  fibres.     Sclcrenchyma  cells,   vari- 
able in  size;  some  not  very  greatly  thickened,  porous. 


Fig,  105.     MYRICA.    Bark. 

a.  Larger  sclcrenchyma. 

b.  Bast. 

c.  Crystal  bearing  fibres. 

d.  Smaller  sclcrenchyma. 

e.  Starch  granules. 

/.     Elongated  sclcrenchyma. 

g.     bark  parenchyma. 

/;.     Prismatic  crystals  and  starch  grannies. 

J29.     (Fig.  106.)    MYRISTICA.    Nutmeg.    U.  S. 
Coarse  powder  as  a  spice. 
Mnskatniiss,  G.     Muscade,  Noix  de  muscade,  Fr. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


247 


The  seeds  (arillus  removed)  of  Myristica  fragrans,  Houtt., 
Myristicaceae. 

Rather  dull  reddish  brown ;  fatty,  oily. 

Very  aromatic;  nutmeg  odor. 

Pungent,  bitterish  and  somewhat  astringent. 

Endosperm  cells  quite  large,  thin-walled,  of  two  kinds  caus- 
ing the  marbled  appearance  of  the  interior  of  the  seed.  The 
colorless  endosperm  cells  filled  with  compound  starch,  large 
proteid  granules  with  distinct  crystalloids,  and  fat ;  the  fat  causing 


Fig.  106.*    MYRISTICA. 

a.  Parenchyma  (endosperm)   with  starch  and  crystals. 

b.  Reddish  brown  parenchyma. 

c.  Small  celled  outer  tissue  with  granular  contents. 

d.  Starch  and  crystals. 


248 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


the  granules  and  proteid  bodies  to  be  indistinct.  The  reddish 
brown  endosperm  cells  have  very  irregular  walls  and  are  empty 
or  contain  resin  and  volatile  oil.  The  starch  granules  occur  in 
twos,  threes,  fours,  fives  and  even  higher  aggregates.  The  outer 
tissue  consists  of  small,  brown,  tangentially  flattened  cells  filled 
with  reddish  brown  coloring  matter. 

Adulterated   (only  rarely)   with  wild  or  false  nutmeg  (My- 
risfica  fatua). 


Fig.  J07.    NUX  VOMICA. 

a.  Trichomes. 

b.  Trichomatic  fragments. 

c.  d.    Endosperm  tissue. 

e.     Outer  endosperm,  lateral  view. 
/.     Hypodernal   tissue. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  249 

J  30.     (Fig,  J07.)     NUX  VOMICA.    Nux  Vomica.    U.  S. 

V 

Fl.  ex.  40.    Tinct.  60. 

Poison-nut,  Quaker  buttons,  E.  Krahenaugen,  Brechnuss,  G. 
Noix  vomiques,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Strychnos  Nux  vojiiica,  L.,  Logoniacese. 

Light  grayish  brown. 

Odorless. 

Extremely  and  persistently  bitter. 

The  outer  covering  consists  wholly  of  elongated,  thick- 
walled,  colorless  trichomes,  with  widened,  porous  base.  The 
wall  is  unevenly  thickened,  ridges  extending  nearly  straight  to 
long  spirally  from  base  to  near  apex.  Most  of  these  trichomes 
are  broken  in  the  powdering.  Endosperm  cells  very  thickwalled, 
colorless,  filled  with  oil  globules  and  granular  proteid  matter. 
Beneath  the  trichomatic  layer  is  a  tissue  of  flattened  cells. 

Compare  histology  of  Ignatia  and  Nitx  vomica.  Both  give 
color  reactions  with  alkalies  and  acids. 

J3I.     (Fig.  108.)     PARACOTO.     Paracoto. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Falso  coto,  E.     Para-Coto,  G.     Ecorce  de  paracoto,  Fr. 

Origin,  as  for  coto,  unknown. 

Deap  cinnamon  brown. 

Aromatic,  recalling  cinnamon ;  camphoraceous. 

Very  pungent,  bitterish. 

Histology  nearly  identical  with  that  of  coto  bark.  Brown 
granular  oily  bodies  are  wanting. 

With  concentrated  or  40  per  cent  nitric  acid  paracoto 
powder  turns  yellowish,  which  gradually  changes  into  a  dirty 
yellowish  olive  green,  while  coto  turns  a  deep  red. 

Paracoto  is  quite  generally  substituted  for  coto.  Compare 
also  with  Winter's  bark. 


250 


iT* 


Fig.  108.    PARACOTO. 

a,  b,  c,  d,  e.     Sclerenchyma  cells. 

f.  Parenchyma. 

g.  Parenchyma  with  resin  cells   {h). 
h.     Resin  masses. 

i.     Outer  cork  cells. 
;'.     Starch. 

J32.     fFig.  J09.)     PAREIRA.     Pareria.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Grieswurzel,  G.    Racine  de  butiia,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Chondodcndron  tomcntosum,  Rtiiz    et    Pavon, 
Menispermacege 

Light  yellowish  brown. 

Nearly  odorless;  somewhat  musty. 

Bitter. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


251 


Parenchyma  cells  medium  sized  to  rather  smaH,  with  com- 
pound starch;  granules  in  twos  and  threes,  rarely  fours.  Outer 
tissue  filled  with  coloring  matter.  Typical,  medium  sized,  por- 
ous sclerenchyma  cells;  bast  fibres;  porous  tracheids  and  large 
porous  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  roots  of  various  more  or  less  closely  re- 
lated plants  and  stems  of  the  offtcial  plant. 


53 

Fig.  J09.    PAREIRA. 


a.  Sclerenchyma. 

b.  Bast. 

c.  Cells  with  coloring  matter. 

d.  Parenchyma  with  starch. 

e.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 
/.  Large  porous  duct. 

g.  Tracheids. 

/:.  Starch  granules. 


252 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  no.*    PHYSOSTIGMA. 

a.  Epidermal  palisade  cells. 

b.  Endosperm  cells  with  starch  granules    (c). 
d.     Hypodermal  cells  with  red  coloring  matter. 

J33.     (Fig.  no.)     PHYSOSTIGMA.     Physostigma.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.    Tinct.  40. 

Calabar  bean,  ordeal  bean,  E.  Calabarbobnen,  Gottesurtheil- 
bohnen,  G.     Feve  d'epreuve  du  calabar,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Physostigma  veiicnosiim,  Balfour,  Legumin- 
osse. 

Light  brown;  oily. 

Odorless ;  bean  odor. 

Almost  tasteless. 

Outer  brown  hard  layer  consists  of  very  long,  slender,  thick- 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


253 


walled,  brownish,  palisade  cells,  with  brown  granular  contents. 
Irregular,  thickwalled,  somewhat  porous,  entirely  colorless  cells 
filled  with  bright  red  coloring  matter.  Endosperm  cells  very 
thinwalled,  large,  loosely  united,  filled  with  starch,  fat  and  color- 
less granular  matter.  The  starch  granules  resemble  those  of  the 
bean,  but  are  much  larger,  hili  and  stratification  very  distinct; 
only  a  few  granules  in  each  cell. 

Adulterated   with    seeds   of   Physosfig)]ia   cyUndrospcrimun, 
palm  oil  seeds  and  seeds  of  Muciiua. 


Fig.  ni.    PHYTOLACCA.     Fruit. 

a.  Epidermis  of  pericarp. 

b.  Cells  of  pericarp. 

c.  Parenchyma  of  pericarp  with  small  granules. 

d.  Radially  elongated   epidermal   cells  of   seed. 

e.  f.     Endosperm  cells. 


2  54  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

J34.     (Fig.  in.)    PHYTOLACCA.    Phytolacca-Berry.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  20. 

Pokeberry,  E.  Amcrikanische  Kcrmesbeere,  G.  Raisin  d' 
Amerique,  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Phytolacca  dccaudra,  L.,  Phytolaccacece. 

Very  dark;  particles  adhering,  sticky. 

Odor  pecuHar ;  recalHng  roasted,  chicory. 

Sweetish,  somewhat  pungent. 

Epidermal  cells  of  pericarp  brown,  polygonal,  walls  thin, 
transversely  very  finely  porous;  showing  nuclei  and  proteid  mat- 
ter. Below  this  a  layer  of  brownish  cells  with  thin,  delicately 
wavy  vertical  walls.  Pericarp  parenchyma  of  very  thinwalled 
polygonal  cells  entirely  filled  with  small  spherical  to  prismatic 
granules.  Outer  layer  of  seed  coat  of  deep  reddish  brown  verti- 
cally elongated  thick-walled,  porous,  sclerenchyma  cells.  Endo- 
sperm cells  rather  small,  containing  oil  globules  and  small 
spherical  granules. 

J35.     (Fig.  112.)     PHYTOLACCA.     Phytolacca  Root.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  50. 

Pokeroot,  E.  Kermesbeerenwurzel,  G.  Racine  de  phytolaque, 
Fr.     Origin  as  for  134. 

Pale  brown. 

Faint  odor ;  recalling  taraxicum. 

Sweetish,  pungent. 

Brownish  cork  tissue;  collenchymatous  parenchyma.  Pa- 
renchyma large  celled,  mostly  tangentially  flattened,  walls  col- 
lapsed and  cells  variable  in  size  and  thickness  of  walls.  Tracheids 
and  large  porous  to  nearly  scalariform  ducts.  Some  simple  and 
compound  (in  twos,  the  two  granules  not  evenly  united)  starch 
granules.  Some  parenchyma  cells  filled  with  short  acicular  crys- 
tals of  calcium  oxalate. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


255 


Fig.  112.    PHYTOLACCA.     Root. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  crystal  bearing  cell. 

b.  Outer  parenchyma. 

c.  Parenchyma. 

d.  Parenchyma    with    starch. 
c.  Cork,  lateral  view. 

/.     Porous  duct  and  tracheids. 

g.     Collenchyma. 

Ii.     Starch  and  crystals. 

J36.     (Fig.  n3.)     PILOCARPUS.     Pilocarpus.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Pernambtico  jaborandi,  jaborandi,  E.     Jaborandi,  G.,  Fr. 

The  leaflets  of  Pilocarpus  Jaborandi,  Holmes,  ( Pernumbuco 
iaborandi)  and  P.  Sclhaiius,  Eng.,  (Rio  jaborandi),  Rutacese. 

Light  yellowish  brown ;  lemon  tinge. 

Slightly  aromatic  and  fragrant. 

Somewhat  bitter  and  pungent. 


256 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Epidermal  cells  polygonal,  rather  thick-walled,  cuticle  thick 
with  linear  markings.  Stomata  on  lower  surface  only,  surround- 
ed by  three  to  five  arched  neighboring  cells.  Simple  single  celled, 
slender  trichomes.  Leaf  parenchyma  with  aggregate  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate.  Some  sclerenchyma  cells  and  sclerchymatous 
tracheids. 

Adulterated  with  leaflets  of  related  species.  Pilocarpus  Sel- 
loamis;  epidermal  cells  a  third  smaller.     P.  pciiiiatifoliiis  (Para- 


Fig.  n3.    PILOCARPUS. 

a.  Lower  epidermis. 

b.  Trichomes. 

c.  Upper  epidermis,   lateral  view. 

d.  Aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

e.  Upper  epidermis. 

f.  Tracheids. 

g.  Sclerenchyma. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


257 


guy  jaborandi),  and  P.  spicatus  (Aracati  jaborandi),  with  nu- 
merous brown  resin  bearing  leaf  parenchyma  cells  and 
small  granules  and  resin  in  epidermal  cells.  P.  trachylophus 
Ceara  jaborandi)  with  curved  sickle  shaped  trichomes.  P.  rni- 
cropJiyllus  with  resin  bearing  neighboring  cells. 


Fig.  JH.    PIMENTA. 

a.  Sclerenchyma. 

b.  Trichomes. 

c.  Parenchyma    with   starch    and    resin. 

d.  Parenchyma. 

c.  Gland,    sclerenchyma   and   crystal   bearing   cell. 

/.  Endosperm  cells   with   starch   and   resin. 

g.  Epidermal  cells. 

J37.     (Fi?.  114.)     PIMENTA.     Pimenta.     U.S. 

Coarse  powder,  as  a  spice. 

Allspice,  E.     Nelkenpfeffer,  Neugewurz.  Englisches  Gewiirz,  G. 
Piment  de  la  Jamaique,  Tonteepice,  Fr. 


258  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

The  fruit,  nearly  ripened,  of  Pimenta  oMcinalis,  Lindley, 
Myrtacese. 

Dull  reddish  brown,  somewhat  oily. 

Aromatic ;  recalling  cloves. 

Very  pungent. 

Epidermis  of  pericarp  of  small  cells ;  some  short,  simple, 
single  celled,  more  or  less  bent  and  twisted,  thickwalled  trichomes. 
Parenchyma  cells  with  small,  simple,  spherical  and  compound 
starch  granules,  rather  small  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxa- 
late and  resin  bearing  cells.  Large  resin  reservoirs.  Larger  and 
smaller  thickwalled,  very  finely  porous  sclerenchyma  cells.  Endo- 
sperm cells  with  starch  and  resin. 

Adulterated  with  various  vegetable  substances. 

138.     (Fig.  US.)     PIPER.     Black  Pepper.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Coarse  powder,  as  a  spice. 

Schwarzer  Pfefifer,  G.     Poivre  noir,  Fr. 

The  unripe  fruit  of  Piper  nigrum,  L.,  Piperaceae. 

Dark  gray  to  mottled  gray. 

Aromatic ;  pepper  odor. 

Extremely  pungent. 

Small  epidermal  cells  (of  pericarp)  with  dark  coloring  mat- 
ter; below  this  radially  elongated,  reddish  brown,  rather  small, 
thick-walled  porous,  sclerenchyma  cells.  Reddish  brown  peri- 
carp parenchyma.  One  layer  of  seed  coat  of  small,  porous  scler- 
enchvma  cells  with  outer  walls  very  thin ;  small  celled  pigment 
layer.  Endosperm  cells  large,  prismatic,  very  thin-walled  and 
entirely  filled  with  uniform,  small,  polygonal  simple  starch  gran- 
ules ;  some  cells  filled  with  resin. 

Adulterated  with  flour,  starches,  mustard,  husks,  capsicum, 
flaxseed  fruit  of  allied  species.     (See  white  pepper.) 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  259 


Fig.  US.    PIPER.    Black. 

a.  Sclerenchynia  with  unequally  thickened  walls. 

b.  Tissue  with  starch  and   resin. 

c.  Epidermal  cells. 

d.  Typical  sclerenchyma. 
c.     Parenchyma. 

139.     PIPER.     White  Pepper. 

Coarse  powder  as  a  spice. 
Weisser  Pfeffer,  G. 

Orig-in  as  for  black  pepper.     The  ripe  fruits  deprived  of  epi- 
carp  and  mesocarp  are  used. 

Ash  gray. 

Aromatic;  pepper  odor. 

\'ery  pungent ;  less  pungent  than  black  pepper. 

Histology  as  for  black  pepper,  excepting  that  the  epidermis, 


260 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


outer  sclerenchyma  cells  and  most  of  the  pericarp  parenchyma 
cells  are  wanting. 

Adulterations  as  for  black  pepper.  Long  pepper  (Piper 
langitm)  has  no  resin  bearing  cells  in  endosperm  and  cells  are 
smaller.  The  majority  of  adulterants  differ  very  markedly  histo- 
logically and  are  readily  detected  microscopically.  Nut  shells  are 
also  very  extensively  used  as  an  adulterant  of  pepper.  Further, 
winnowings  and  refuse,  stems,  date,  olive  and  other  seeds. 


Fig.  n6.    PODOPHYLLUM. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  crystals. 

b.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

c.  Starch,   simple,   compound   and   aggregate. 

d.  Aggregate  crystals,  of  calcium  o.xalate. 
c.  Cork. 

/.  Reticulate  ducts  and  trachcids. 

g.  Spiral  duct. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  261 


140.     (Fig.  n6.)     PODOPHYLLUM.     May  Apple.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

■Mandrake  root,  E.  Fitssblattwurzel,  G.  Rhizome  de  podophyl- 
lum, Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  rootlets  of  Podophyllum  pelfatum  L.,  Ber- 
beridaceas. 

Light  grayish  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Sweetish,  very  bitter,  somewhat  pungent. 

Some  brown  cork  tissue,  Parenchyma  cells  thick-walled, 
loosely  united,  filled  with  compound  (mostly  twos  and  threes) 
starch  granules  and  aggregates  of  granules.  Some  cells  with 
quite  large  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Reticulate, 
porous  and  a  few  spiral  ducts. 

Ht.     (Fig.  117.)     POPULU.     Populos. 

FI.  ex.  60. 

White  poplar  bark,  Silver  poplar  bark,  E.     Zitterpappalrinde,  G. 

The  bark  of  Populus  troncUoidcs,  Mich.,  Salicacese. 

Bright  pale  yellow. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Bitter. 

Some  parenchyma  and  cork  cells.  Sclerenchyma  cells  with 
thick,  finely  porous  walls  and  irregular  sclerenchymatous  fibres. 
Rather  thickwalled,  porous  bast  fibres  and  crystal-bearing  fibres. 
Many  layered  medullary  rays. 


262 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  n7.    POPULUS. 

a.  Sclerenchyma. 

b.  Bast. 

c.  Crystal  bearing  fibre. 

d.  Bast  and  medullary  ray   {Ji)    (tang.  view). 

e.  Parenchyma. 

f.  Sclerenchymatous  bast. 

g.  Parenchyma. 

142.     (Fi^.  118.)     PRINOS.     Black  Alder. 

Fl.  ex.  6o. 
Winterberry,  feverbush,  E.     Prinos,  G.,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Prinos  verticillatns,  L.,  Aquifoliacese. 

Light  brown,  greenish  tinge. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Bitter,  somewhat  astringent  and  pungent. 

Outer  bark  of  small,  colorless,  thickwalled,  flattened  cells. 
ATiddle  bark  of  loosely  united  spherical  parenchyma  cells.     Inner 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


263 


bark  of  elongated  cells,  with  some  small  compound  starch  gran- 
ules. Numerous  typical,  thickwalled  porous  sclerenchyma  cells 
and  elongated  sclerenchyma  cells. 


Fig.  US.*    PRINOS. 

a.  Outer  bark  cells. 

b.  :\Iiddle  bark  cells. 

c.  Spheroidal  sclerenchyma  cells. 

d.  Elongated  sclerenchyma  cells. 

e.  Inner  bark   cells   with   small   compound   starch   granules. 


143.     (Fi^.  119.)    PRUNES  SEROTINA.*    Wild-cherry 
Bark.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  20.     Inf.  40. 

W'ildekirschenrinde,  G.     Ecorce  de  cerisier,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Pruniis  scrotina,  Ehrhart,  Rosacese. 

■*The   Pharmacopceial    name   Primus   virginiana   is    wrong,    as   that   is 
the  name  of  the  choke-cherry  as  explained. 


264 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Bright  reddish  brown. 

Somewhat  aromatic,  recalling  bitter  almonds. 

Bitter  and  astringent. 

Numerous  typical  thickwalled,  porous  sclerenchyma  cells. 
Bast  fibres  comparatively  few;  some  branching,  irregular,  scler- 
enchymatous.  Aggregate  and  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium 
oxatate  abundant  in  bark  parenchyma  cells. 

The  bark  of  choke  cherry  (Primus  virginiana,  Miller)  differs 


0^0 


Fig.  n9.    PRUNUS  SEROTINA. 


a.  Sclerenchyma. 

b.  Bast. 

c.  Branching  bast. 

d.  Parenchyma  with  crystals. 

e.  Prismatic  crystals. 

/.  Parenchyma,   longitudinal   view. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


265 


from  the  above  in  the  absence  of  sclerenchyma  cells ;  bast  fibres, 
normal  and  branching,  are  very  abundant;  aggregate  crystals 
very  numerous  and  some  quite  large;  prismatic  crystals  are  want- 
ing; middle  bark  parenchyma  cells  small  and  loosely  united. 


Fig.  J20*.    PRUNUS  VIRGINIAN  A.     (Choke  Cherry.) 

a.  Bast. 

b.  Parenchyma   cells. 

c.  Aggregate  crystals. 

144.     PULSATILLA.     Pulsatilla.     (U.  S.,  J890.) 

Fl.  ex.  30, 

Pasque  flower,  E.     Kiichenschelle,  G.     Pulsatille,  Coquelourde, 
Fr. 

The  flowering  herb  of  Anemone  pratensis,  L.   Ranunculacese. 

Greenish. 


266 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fragrant;  hay  odor. 

Somewhat  pungent. 

Vertical  wall  of  lower  epidermal  cells  wavy,  of  upper  epi- 
dermis only  slightly  so.  Stomata  above  and  below.  Some  of 
the  leaf  parenchyma  cells  filled  with  cryptocrystalline  calcium 
oxalate.  Long  (500  microns)  single  celled,  thick-walled,  simple 
trichomes  and  some  single  celled.  Indian  club-shaped,  thinwallcd 
glandular  trichomes.     Some  sclerenchymatous  cells. 


Fig.  J2I.    PYRETHRUM. 

a.  Epidermal  cells. 

b.  Epidermis,  lateral  view. 

c.  Trichomes. 

d.  Sclerenchyma. 

e.  Pollen  grains 

/.  Parenchyma  with  crystals. 

g.  Tracheids. 


Flowers, 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  267 

145.     (Fig.  121.)     PYRETHRUM.     Flowers. 

As   insect  powder,  very  fine. 
Persian  pellitory,   Persian   insect  powder,  E.     Persisches  Insek- 
tenpulver,  G. 

The  flowers  of  PyrctJinun  roscuiii  and  P.  carneuni,  Com- 
posite. 

Pale  yellowish  brown. 

Fragrant. 

Bitter,  pungent. 

Epidermal  cells  with  wavy  vertical  walls  and  outer  walls 
projecting  convexly.  Pollen  grains  with  conical  projections  and 
three  distinct  pores.  Typical  sclerenchyma  cells  and  tracheids. 
Prismatic  and  small  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  T- 
shaped  trichomes,  with  several  basal  cells,  which  are  usually  de- 
stroyed, and  one  long  tapering  horizontal  cell. 

Dalmatian  insect  powder  made  from  the  flowers  of  P.  ciner- 
ariacfolium  is  histologically  closely  similar  to  the  above.  Both 
are  frequently  adulterated  with  flowers  of  related  plants;  also 
with  chamomille,  calendula,  curcuma,  saw-dust,  ground  mustard, 
flour,  etc. 

J46.     {Fig.  122.)     PYRETHRUM.     Pellitory.     U.  S. 

Tinct.  40. 
Roman    pellitory,    E.     Romische    Bertramwurzel,    G.     Pyrethre, 
Salivaire,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Anacyclus  Pyretliriiin,  D.  C.,  Compositse. 

Pale  brown. 

Aromatic;  recalling  taraxacum. 

Extremely  and  persistently  pungent. 

Some  brown  cork  tissue.  Rather  large  parenchyma  cells, 
most  of  which  contain  inulin.  Typical  and  somewhat  elongated 
sclerenchyma  cells.  Lumps  of  yellow  resin  from  the  resin 
bearing  ducts.  Reticulate  and  some  spiral  ducts  of  medium 
diameter.     Inner  parenchyma  cells  elongated.     No  starch. 


268 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  122.    PYRETHRUM.    Root. 

a.  Parenchyma   with   resin. 

b.  Sclerenchyma. 

c.  Parenchyma,   longitudinal  view. 

d.  Reticulate  duct. 

e.  Spiral  duct. 

f.  Cork. 

g.  Resin  mass. 
h.  Resin  mass. 


J47.     (Fi^.  123.)     QUASSIA.     Quassia.     U.  S. 

FI.  ex.  6o.    Tinct.  40. 

Bitter  a.sh,  Quassia  wood,,  Bitter  wood,  E.     Quassienholz,  Flie- 
genholz,  G.     Quassie,  Bois  amere,  Fr. 

The  wood  of  Picracna  cxcelsa,  Lindlev,  Simarubaceae. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


269 


\'ery  pale  yellowish  l)rown;  pale  straw  yellow. 

Odorless. 

Intensely  bitter. 

Great  bulk  of  tissue  consists  of  typical  wood  fibres.  Short 
prismatic  crystal-bearing  fibres.  Medullary  rays  from  one  to 
four  layers  of  cells,  with  simple  spherical  starch  granules.  Very 
large,  finely  porous  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  wood  and  bark  of  allied  species.    Surinam 


h. 


Fig.  123.    QUASSIA. 

Wood  fibres  and  medullary  ray,  tang.  view. 
Wood  fibres  and  med.  ray,  radial  view. 
/.     Crystal  bearing  cells. 
Large  porous  duct. 
Med.  ray  with  starch. 
Crystals  and   starch  granules. 
Wood  fibres. 


270  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

quassia  (Quassia  amara)  differs  from  the  above  in  that  the 
me(killary  rays  consists  of  one  layer  of  cells  and  furthermore 
sclerencliyma  cells  from  the  hark  are  present. 

J48.     QUERCUS  ALBA.     White  Oak.     U.  S. 
Fl.  ex.  30. 

Oak  bark,  E.     Eichenrinde,  G.     Ecorce  de  chene,  Fr. 

The  inner  bark  oiQuercus  alba,  L.,  Cupuli ferae. 

Pale  reddish  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Very  astringent  and  bitter. 

Numerous  typical,  medium  sized,  thickwalled  sclerencliyma 
cells.  Typical,  rather  large,  thickwalled  bast  fibres,  profusely 
lined  with  prismatic  crystal-bearing  fibres ;  aggregate  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate  also  abundant.  Parenchyma  cells  rather  thin- 
walled,  and  of  a  pale  brownish  rosy  hue;  some  with  brown  resin. 

The  bark  of  various  related  species  is  often  substituted  for 
the  above. 

U9.     (Fi^.  J24.)    QUILLAJA.     Quillaja-bark.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Soap-bark,  E.       Seifenrinde,  G.     Ecorce  de  quillaya.  Fr. 

The  inner  bark  of  Qiiillaja  Saponaria,  Fr.,  RosacCcX. 

Very  pale  ash  gray. 

Odorless;  irritating,  producing  sneezing. 

Very  pungent,  astringent;  saliva  foamy. 

Numerous,  rather  large,  thickwalled,  porous  bast  cells; 
many  of  them  irregular,  nodular,  bent  and  branching;  some 
short  and  sclerenchymatous.  Remnants  of  the  outer  brown 
cork  tissue  may  be  found.  Inner  bark  parenchyma  cells  entirely 
colorless,  elongated ;  most  cells  with  single  large  elongated 
prisms  of  calcium  oxalate. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


271 


Fig.  124.     QUILL  A  JA. 

a.  Bast. 

b.  Crj'stals. 

c.  Parenchyma  with  crystals. 

d.  Branching  bast  cells. 

e.  Sclerenchyma. 
/.  Outer  bark. 

^.  Parenchyma. 

150.     (Fig.  125.)     RHAMNUS  PURSHIANA.     Cascara 

Sagrada. 

Fl.  ex.  40. 

Sacred  bark,  Bearberrv  bark,  E.     Amerikanische  Faulbatimrinde, 
G. 

The  bark  of  Rhaiiinus  Purshiana,  D.  C,  Rhamnacese. 

Yellow  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Bitter;  saliva  vellow. 


272 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Numerous  porous,  mostly  thickwalled  sclerenchyma  cells. 
Rather  slender,  but  thickwalled  and  porous  bast  fibres,  accom- 
panied by  numerous  prismatic  crystal-bearing  fibres.  Brown 
cells  of  the  outer  bark.  Inner  bark  parenchyma,  with  small, 
simple,  spherical  starch  granules  and  aggregate  crystals  of  cal- 
cium oxalate. 

Adulterated  with  the  bark  of  related  species  (see  Frangula). 


Fig.  J25.    RHAMNUS  PURSHIANA. 

Sclerenchyma. 

Bast. 

Parenchyma  with  starch. 

Crystal  bearing  fibres. 

Parenchyma  and  medullary  ray. 

Medullary  ray,  tangential  view. 

Outer  cork. 

Parenchyma  with  aggregate  crystals. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


273 


Fig.  126.     RHEUM. 

a.  Crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

b.  Parenchyma   with   starch,   resin   and  crystals. 

c.  Resin. 

d.  Reticulate  ducts. 

c.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

g.  Starch. 

151.     (Fig.  126.)     RHEUM.     Rhubarb.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.     Fine  powder. 

Rhabarber,  G.  Rhubarbe,  Fr. 

The  peeled  older  roots  of  Rhciun  officinale,  Bail.,  Polygo- 
naceae. 

Brownish  yellow. 

Aromatic;  not  pleasant. 

\>ry  astringent  and  bitter. 

Parenchyma  cells  rather  large  and  thinwalled,  looselv  uni- 


274 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs 


ted,  with  compound  starch  granules  (mostly  twos  and  threes) 
and  yellowish  brown  resin;  besides  very  numerous  large  aggre- 
gate crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.     Reticulate  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  roots  of  related  species  and  varieties  which 
resemble  the  official  very  closely  histologically.  R.  rhapon- 
tiatni  (European  rhubarb)  and  several  other  kinds  are  richer  in 
starch,  but  otherwise  similar.  Also  adulterated  with  ciuxuma, 
flour,  starches,  etc. 


Fig.  127.      RHUS  GLABRA  BARK. 

a.  Bark   parenchyma   with   compound   starch,    crystals   and   yellowish 
brown  resin. 

b.  Parenchyma,   longitudinal   view. 

c.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

d.  Cork,  vertical  and  lateral  views. 

e.  Resin. 

/.  Wood  fibres,  porous. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  275 


J52.     (Fig.  J27.)     RHUS  GLABRA.     Sumach  Bark. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Sumach  bark,  E.     Suniachrinde,  G.     Sumac,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Rhus  glabra,  L.,  Anacardiacese. 

Light  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Bitter,  astringent. 

Brown  cork  tissue;  most  cells  with  reddish  brown  coloring 
matter.  Bark  parenchyma  rich  in  compound  starch  granules; 
some  cells  with  reddish  brown  resin;  aggregate  crystals  of  cal- 
cium oxalate.     Wood  fibres;  sclerenchyma  cells. 

J53.     (Fig.  128.)     RHUS  GLABRA.     Sumach.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Sumach.  E.,  G.     Sumac,  Fr. 

The  fruit  of  Rlnis  glabra,  L.,  Anacardiace?e. 
•  Rather  dark  reddish  brown. 

Odorless. 

Acid  taste. 

Epidermis  of  pericarp  consists  of  thin-walled  polygonal  cells 
with  red  brown  contents.  Numerous  bright  red  club  shaped  tri- 
chomes,  some  of  a  single  row  of  cells,  other  many  rows ;  also 
simple,  slender,  pointed,  single-celled,  colorless,  thick-walled  tri- 
chomes.  Outer  layer  of  seed  coat  of  vertically  elongated,  thick- 
walled,  irregular,  colorless  cells.  Sclerenchymatous,  porous  cells. 
Endosperm  cells  thin-walled,  polygonal  with  granular  contents. 


276 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  128.    RHUS  GLABRA  FRUIT. 

a.  b.     Deep  red  many  celled  trichomes. 

c.  Colorless  trichomes. 

d.  Outer  layer  of  seed  coat,  lateral  view. 
c.     Thickwalled  porous  cells  of  testa. 

/.     Colorless   crystal    bearing   layer    of   testa. 

g.     Endosperm  cells. 

//.     Parenchyma  of  pericarp. 

i.     Epidermal  cells  of  pericarp. 

154.     ROSA  GALLICA.     Red  Rose.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 
EssigTose,   Sammtrose,   Ziickerrose,   G.       Rose   rouge,   Rose    de 
Provins,  Fr. 

The  petals  of  Rosa  gallica,  L.,  Rosacese. 

Light  purplish  red. 

Fragrant ;  rose  odor. 

\"ery  astringent,  acidulous,  bitterish. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


277 


Upper  epidermal  cells  vertically  elongated,  conical,  with 
granules  of  purple  coloring  matter.  In  vertical  view  these  cells 
appear  thick-walled  polygonal,  indistinct  in  coarse  powder,  cuti- 
cle smooth.  Lower  epidermal  cells  larger,  not  elongated,  verti- 
cal walls  somewhat  wavy,  irregular ;  cuticle  finely  wavy,  short 
linear  striate;  no  coloring  matter.  Parenchyma  cells  rounded, 
empty.     Spiral  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  the  petals  of  various  red  roses  or  petals  of 
the  white  or  pink  roses  colored  with  red  dye  as  fuchsin. 


m 
m 


Fig.  J29,    RUBUS  VILLOSUS. 

a.  Bast  fibres,  s-Dme  starch  and  a  few  sclerenchymatous  fibres. 

b.  Parenchyma  with  starch. 

c.  Cork. 

d.  Ducts  and  tracheids. 


278  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

155.     (Fig.  J29.)     RUBUS.     Blackberry.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Brombcerrinde,  G.     Ecorce  de  rouce  noir,  Fr. 

The  root  bark  with  some  of  the  wood  of  Rnbtis  I'iliosiis, 
Aiton,  R.  canadensis,  L.,  and  R.  trivialis,  Michaux,  Rosacea. 

\"ery  Hght  brown. 

Odorless. 

Very  astringent,  bitter. 

Outer  layer  of  brown  cork.  Inner  bark  parenchyma  of  thin- 
walled,  closely  united  cells  bearing  simple  spherical  starch  gran- 
ules. Bast  fibres  with  walls  of  medium  thickness,  porous,  con- 
taining some  starch ;  outer  walls  of  bast  appear  .shreddy.  A  few- 
short  sclerenchymatous  tracheids  accompany  bast  fibres.  Nu- 
merous tracheids  and  porous  ducts  from  wood  remnants  of  roots. 

Compare  the  histology  of  the  three  official  roots.  May  be 
adulterated  with  roots  and  rhizomes  of  other  plants. 

\56.     (Fig.  J30.)     RUMEX.     Rumex.     (U.  S.,  1590.) 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Yellow  Dock,   E.     Grindwurzel,   Mengelwurzel,  G.     Racine  pa- 
tience frisee,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Riiuicx  crispus,  L.,  and  other  species,  Polygon- 
acege. 

Brown. 

Somewhat  aromatic ;  nearly  odorless. 

\^ery  bitter  and  astringent. 

Thin-walled  brown  cork  tissue.  Parenchyma  cells  large, 
thinwalled,  loosely  united,  filled  with  granular  matter  and  simple, 
eliptical,  oval  and  egg  shaped  starch  granules.  Rather  large  ag- 
gregate crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  abundant.  Yellow  brown 
sclerenchyma  cells,  somewhat  variable  in  thickness  of  walls  and 
in  form.     Bast,  tracheids  and  reticulate  ducts. 

Related  species  of  dock  (Rumex)  are  substituted  for  the 
above. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  279 


Fig.  130.    RUMEX. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch  granules  and  crystals. 

b.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

c.  Ducts  and  tracheids. 

d.  Bast. 

e.  Starch   granules  and   crystals. 
/.  Cork  cells. 

J57.     {¥i<g.  13  J.)     SABADILLA.     Cevadilla. 

Fl.  ex.  30.     Fine  powder.  _  ^' 

Lausekorner,  Sabadillsamen,  G.     Cevadille,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Asagraca  officinalis,  Lindley,  Melanthaceas. 

Dull  dark  brown. 

Heavy,  nauseous;  very  disagreeably  rancid  when  old. 

Very  bitter,  pungent. 

Epidermal    cells    of   seeds    polygonal,    vertically     somewhat 


28o 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


elongated,  walls  rather  thin,  brown;  brown,  thinwalled,  collapsed 
hypodermal  tissue.  Endosperm  cells  coUenchymatous  with 
granular  proteid  matter. 


Fig.  J3I.*    SA.BADILLA.. 

Colenchymatous  endosperm  tissue. 

Epidermal  and  hypodermal  tissue,  profile   view. 

Epidermal  cells,  vertical  view. 

Hypodermal  cells. 


158.     (Fiz-  132.)    SABINA.     Sabina.     (U.  S.,  1890.) 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Sadebaum,  Sevenkraut,  G.     Sabine,  Fr. 

The  terminal  branches  of  Sabina  officinalis,  Garcke,  Coniferce. 
Rather  light  yellowish  brown. 
Very  disagreeably  terebinthine. 
Bitter,  resinous;  Saliva  greenisli. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


281 


Epidermal  cells  mostly  elongated,  walls  rather  thick,  por- 
ous. Numerous  stomata  of  leaf  epidermis.  Leaf  and  bark  par- 
enchyma of  rather  large  cells,  walls  of  medium  thickness.  Some 
simple  spherical  and  irregular  starch  granules.  Resin  and  granu- 
lar matter  in  most  cells.  Bast  fibres  and  tracheids  with  bordered 
pits. 


Fig.  132.    SABINA. 


a.  Epidermis  with  stomata. 

b.  Bast  fibres. 

c.  Tracheids   with  bordered   pits. 

d.  Epidermal  tissue. 

e.  Large  parenchyma  cells. 
/.  Sclerenchymatous   cells. 
g.  Bark  parenchyma  cells. 
h.  Starch  granules. 


282 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

2& 


Fig.  133.    SALIX. 

a.  Bast  fibres. 

b.  Crystal  bearing  fibres. 

c.  Medullary  rays  and  fragments. 

d.  Inner   bark   parenchyma    with    crystals    and   deep    reddish    brown 
resin. 

c.  Cork   tissue   with   deep   brown   coloring  matter. 

J59.     (Fig.  133.)     SALIX.     Salix. 

]^Ioderately  fine. 

Willow-bark,  E.     Weidenrinde,  G.     Ecorce  de  saule,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Salix  alba,  L.,  and  other  species  and  varieties, 
Salicaceas. 

Light  pinkish  brown. 

Odorless. 

Very  astringent,  bitter. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  283 

Outer  bark  of  cork  cells  with  brown  contents.  Inner  bark 
parenchyma  with  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Num- 
erous typical  bast  fibres  with  abundant  prismatic  crysial-bearing 
fibres;  abundant  medullary  ray  tissue.  Some  parenchyma  cells 
with  deep  brown  resin. 

J60.     SAMBUCUS.    Sambocus.     (U.  S.,  J890.) 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Elder  flowers,  E.  Fliederblumen,  Hollunderblumen,  G.  Fleurs 
de  sureau,  Fr. 

The  flowers  of  Sambucus  canadensis,  L.,  Caprifoliace?e. 

Pale  brown. 

Fragrant:  recalling  chamomille. 

Bitter,  mucilaginous. 

Prismatic  epidermal  cells  with  irregularly  linear  cuticular 
markings.  Stomata  nearly  circular,  distinct.  Numerous  pale 
brown,  spheroidal  pollen  grains ;  exine  faintly  papillose  or 
warty;  pores  distinct.  Small  celled  parenchyma  with  granular 
particles  and  yellowish  coloring  matter.  .  A  few  simple  single- 
celled,  rather  large  trichomes,  with  distinct  wavy  linear  cuticular 
markings. 

Compare  with  flowers  of  5".  nigra. 

\6\.     (Fi^.  134.)    SANGUINARIA.     Sanguinaria.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Bloodroot,  E.     Blutwurzel,  G.     Sanguinaire,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  of  Sanguinaria  canadensis,  L.,  Papaveraceae. 

Bright  brownish  red. 

Nearly  odorless. 

\^ery  persistently  pungent,  bitter. 

Outer  large-celled  dark  brown  cork  tissue,  some  cells  of 
which  are  filled  with  a  very  dark  brown  resin.  Parenchyma  cells 
large,  with  thin  reddish  brown  walls,  bearing  simple  spherical 


284 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


starch  granules,  mostly  of  uniform  size  some  resin-bearing  par- 
enchyma cells.  Laticiferous  ducts  with  brown  contents.  Ducts 
mostly  reticulate. 


Fig.  J34.      SANGUINARIA. 

a.  Parenchyma  cells,  transverse  view,  with  starch  and  resin. 

b.  Parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

c.  Reticulate  ducts. 

d.  Cork  cells,  one  with  rosin. 

162.     SANTONICA.     Santonica.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Levant  worinseed,  E.       Wurmsamen,  Zittwersamen,  G. 
encine,  Semen-contra,  Fr. 

The  unexpanded  flowers  of  Artemisia  panciflora.  L..  Com- 
positae. 

Light  greenish  brown. 


Sem- 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  285 

\^ery  disagreeably  terebinthine. 

Bitter,  pungent,  cooling. 

Elongated,  thinwalled  epidermal  and  parenchyma  cells. 
Elongated,  slender,  thinwalled,  single-celled  trichomes  and  some 
many-celled  glandular  trichomes.  Numerous  irregularly  pris- 
matice  crystalline  particles.  Numerous  very  small  aggregate 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Pollen  grains  in  masses,  some  free, 
not  mature,  brown  in  color,  pores  distinct,  but  practically  with- 
out the  conical  projection  of  the  extine  so  characteristic  of  pol- 
len grains  of  the  compositse. 

Compare  with  Barbary  wormseed  (Artemisia  rainosa).  Iii- 
dian  wormseed  and  American  wormseed. 

163.     (Fig.  135.)     SARSAPARILLA.     Sarsaparllla.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Sassaparilla,  G.    Salsepareille,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  S)>iilax  offjcinalis,  Kunth,  and  of  other  unknown 
known  species  of  Smilax,  Smilacese. 

Light  grayish  brown. 

Soil  odor;  musty. 

Bitterish,  somewhat  pungent  and  mucilaginous. 

The  following  is  the  histology  of  Honduras  sarsaparilla: 
Epidermal  cells  polygonal,  brown,  some  of  the  cells  developed 
into  single-celled,  usually  short,  thinwalled  trichomes.  Below 
the  epidermis  three  to  four  layers  of  thick-walled,  porous  bast 
cells.  Parenchyma  cells  elongated,  cylindrical,  filled  with  com- 
pound starch  granules ;  some  cells  with  raphides  of  calcium  ox- 
alate. Endoderm  cells  of  uniform  thickness,  elongated,  a  very 
light  brown  color,  porous.  Woody  tissue  consists  of  tracheids 
and  very  large  scalariform  ducts. 

The  histological  differences  of  the  different  sarsaparillas,  as 
seen  in  carefully  prepared  sections,  is  quite  marked,  but  these 
differences  are  not  so  evident  in  the  powders.  Compare  histol- 
ogy of  the  more  important  commercial  varieties. 


286 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  135.    SARSAPARILLA.     Honduras. 

a.  Parenchyma  cells,  longitudinal  view,  filled  with  starch,  also  show- 
ing raphides. 

b.  Raphides. 

c.  Epidermis,  lateral  view. 

d.  Hypodermal  bast  or  woody  tissue. 
c.     Epidermal  cells,  vertical  view. 

/■'.     Endoderm   cells,   longitudinal   view. 
g.     Scalariform  duct. 
/;.     Tracheids. 


J64.     (Fig.  J36.)     SASSAFRAS.     Sassafras.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Sassafrasrinde,  G.     Ecorce  cle  sassafra.s,  Fr. 

The    root    bark     (peeled)     of    Sassafras   oflicijialis,    Nees, 
Lauraceae. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


287 


Bright  reddish  brown. 

Very  fragrantly  aromatic;  recalHng  star  anise. 

Sweetish,  pungent,  bitter,  astringent. 

Some  of  the  outer  cork  cells  with  bright  red  brownish  con- 
tents. Inner  bark  parenchyma  cells  thinwalled,  containing 
rather  small  compound  starch  granules,  with  very  distinct  hili, 
and  many  of  them  fat  and  oil.  Thickwalled,  comparatively  short, 
porous  bast  cells.  Sclerenchyma  cells  varying  in  size,  form  and 
thickness  of  walls. 


Fig.  J36.     SASSAFRAS. 

a.  Inner  bark  parenchyma  cells  with  starch  and  oily  contents,  trans 
verse  view. 

b.  Bast  fibres. 

c.  Thickwalled  sclerenchyma  cells. 

d.  Parenchyma  cells,  longitudinal  view. 

c.     Outer  cork  cells  with  bright  rod  contents. 
/.     Thinwalled  sclerenchyma  cells. 


288  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 

i65.    SCILLA.     Squill.     U.  S. 
Fl.  ex.  20.    Tinct.  30. 

Squills,  E.     Meerzwiebel,  G.     Scille,  Squille,  Fr. 

The  bulbs  of  Urginca  Scilla,  Steinheil,  Liliaceae. 

Very  pale  yellowish  brown. 

Odorless. 

Very  mucilaginous,  bitter,  pungent. 

Very  large,  thinwalled,  colorless  parenchyma  cells  filled 
with  mucilage,  and  many  of  them  contain  acicular  crystals 
(raphides)  of  calcium  oxalate.  These  crystals  vary  from  short 
and  fine,  like  those  of  ipecac,  to  very  large,  like  those  of  Iris  flor. 
The  greatly  elongated  cells  with  the  large  crystals  are  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  appearing  as  glistening  specks  in  a  longitudinal 
section. 

166.     (Fi^.  J37.)    SCOPARIUS.     Scoparius.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  20. 

Broom,  Irish  broom,  E.  Besenginster,  Pfriemenkraut.  G. 
Genet  a  balais,  Fr. 

The  tops  of  Sarotlioiiinus  scoparius,  Koch,  Leguminosge. 

Brown. 

Heavy,  disagreeable,  characteristic;  when  moist. 

Very  bitter. 

Polygonal  epidermal  cells ;  neighboring  cells  of  stomata 
small.  Yellowish,  simple,  single-celled,  thickwalled  trichomes, 
with  a  few  small  warty  markings  on  cuticle;  basal  ends  broken 
ofif  diagonally.  Some  bast  and  crystal-bearing  fibres.  Numer- 
ous small  spiral  ducts  with  delicate  spiral  thickenings;  some 
annular  and  reticulate  ducts  and  tracheids.  Oval  brownish  pol- 
len grains  resembling  a  foot-ball  in  form.  Some  parenchy- 
matous tissue  and  rectangular  (in  longitudinal  view)  hypodermal 
tissue. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  289 


Fig.  J37.     SCOPARIUS. 

a.  Epidermal  tissue  with   stom?ta. 

b.  Trichomes 

c.  Pollen  grains. 
'/.  Bast  fibres. 

e.  Hypodermal  tissue. 

/.  Spiral  ducts. 

g.  Annular  duct. 

h.  Prismatic  crystal  bearing  fibre. 

J67.     (Fi^.  138.)     SCOPOLA.     Scopolia.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  60. 

The  rhizomes  of  Scopola  (Scopolia)  carnioUca,  Solanacege. 

Light  grayish  brown. 

Nearly  odorless. 

Sweetish,  bitterish,   somewhat  pungent. 


290 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs 


Histologically  scopola  is  closely  similar  to  belladonna  root. 
Ducts  of  scopola  are  more  typically  reticulate  and  starch  granules 
are  somewhat  smaller  but  otherwise  closely  similar.  There  is  a 
layer  of  distinct,  rather  thickwalled  brown,  polygonal  epidermal 
cells ;  no  cork.  Parenchyma  cells  large,  loosely  united ;  some 
with  reddish  brown  resin  and  many  with  crystal  sand.  Some 
starch  granules,  polygonal  and  some  in  aggregates  of  five  to 
seven. 

Compare  with  belladonna.  May  be  adulterated  with  Sco- 
pola japonica,  S.  Iiirida  and  roots  of  other  plants. 


Fig.  J38.*    SCOPOLA. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  cryptocrystals    (b). 

c.  Parenchyma  cells,  transverse  view. 

d.  Reticulate  ducts. 

e.  Epidermal  cell. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


291 


Fig.  J39.    SCUTELLARIA. 

a.  Lower  epidermis. 

/;.  Upper  epidermis. 

c.  Pollengrains.  1 

d.  Trichomes. 

e.  Glands,  top  view. 

/.  Spongy   tissue  of  leaves. 

g.  Spiral  ducts. 

h.  Parenchyma. 

i.  Small  gland  and  epidermal  cells,  profile  view. 

/.  Parenchyma. 


J68.     (Fi^.  139.)     SCUTELLARIA.     Skullcap.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Hoodwort,  Madweed,   E.     Helmkraut,   Schildkraut,  G.     Scutel- 
laire,  Fr. 

The  leafy  parts  of  Scutellaria  lateriflora,  L.,  Labiatse. 


2g: 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


DeqD,  somewhat  olive  green. 

Fragrant ;  somewhat  heavy. 

Sweetish  and  somewhat  bitter. 

Vertical  walls  of  epidermal  cells  wavy ;  delicate  wavy  cutic- 
ular  markings ;  stomata  on  lower  surface  only.  Simple  many  cell- 
ed trichomes  with  warty  cuticular  markings.  Large  many  celled 
grandular  trichomes  and  smaller  glands  with  two  secreting  cells. 
Some  oval  pollen  grains. 


Fig.  140.    SENEGA. 

a.  Parenchyma    with    fat. 

b.  c.     Collenchymatous  tissue. 

c.  Cork. 

d.  CoUenchyma  and  phloem  group,  longitudinal  view. 
/.     Parenchyma,   longitudinal  view. 

g.     Tracheids. 
h.     Porous  duct. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  293 

J69.     (Fig.  J40.)     SENEGA.     Senega.     U.  S. 

FI.  ex.  30. 

Senega,  snakeroot,  E.  Senegawurzel,  G.  Polygale  de  Virginie,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Polygala  Senega,  L.,  Polygalacese. 

Light  yellowish  brown. 

Peculiar,  heavy,  somewhat  rancid  odor. 

Sweetish,  pungent. 

Parenchyma  cells  elongated ;  many  of  them  collenchy- 
matous ;  phloem  groups  distributed  through  parenchyma.  No 
cell  contents  excepting  fat.  Outer  yellowish  cork.  Numerous 
tracheids  and  porous  ducts. 

Compare  with  the  western  varieties  with  which  the  above  is 
frequently  adulterated.     Other  adulterants  may  also  be  suspected. 

170.     (Fig.  141.)     SENNA.     Senna.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Alexandria  senna,  E.  Sennesblatter,  Sennesblatter,  G.  Feuilles 
de  sene,  Fr. 

The  leaflets  of  Cassia  acutifolia,  Delile,  Leguminosse. 

Light  yellowish  green. 

Somewhat  fragrant. 

Slightly  bitter ;  mucilaginous. 

Epidermal  cells  polygonal,  cuticle  quite  thick  with  cuticular 
markings.  Stomata  on  both  surfaces.  Simple,  single  celled, 
thick-walled  trichomes  with  distinct  cuticular  markings.  Crys- 
tals present. 

Adulterated  with  leaflets  of  various  related  species  and 
leaves  of  other  plants.  India  senna  (U.  S.  1890)  is  histological- 
ly closely  similar  to  the  above.  Trichomes  longer  and  more  nu- 
merous ;  as  a  rule  each  stoma  is  enclosed  by  two  neighboring 
cells  of  unequal  size  which  is  much  less  commonly  the  case  in 
Alexandria  senna. 


294 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  J4J.    ALEXANDRIA   SENNA. 

a.  Lower  epidermis. 

b.  Upper  epidermis. 

c.  d.     Epidermis,  lateral  view. 
e.     Trichomes. 

/.     Crystal  bearing  fibres  from  vascular  tissue. 
g.     Crystals. 
h.     Bast. 

J7J.     (Fig.  142.)    SERPENTARIA.     Serpcntaria.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  40. 

Mrginia  snakeroot,  Serpentary  root,  E.  Virginische  Schlangen- 
wurzel,  G.     Serpentaire  de  Virginie,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Aristolochia  Serpcntaria,  L.,  Aris- 
tolochiaceae. 

Grayish  brown. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


295 


\>ry  strong  odor  of  turpentine. 

\'ery  pungent,  bitterish. 

Some  brown  cork  cells.  Parenchyma  cells  more  or  less  col- 
lenchymatous,  filled  with  compound  starch  granules.  Pith  or 
central  parenchyma  cells  thickwalled,  porous.  Numerous  rather 
short  tracheids ;  porous  to  reticulate  ducts  with  greater  portion 
of  transverse  septse  still  present. 

Adulterated  with  Spigelia  mar  Handle  a,  Hydrastis  canaden- 
sis, Aristolochia  Serpcntaria  var  hastata,  Cypripedium  puheseens, 
C.  parviHorum,  Palemonium  reptans  and  Panax  quinquifolium. 


Fig.  H2.     SERPENT  ARIA. 
a,  b.     Parenchyma  cells  with  starch. 

c.  Pith  or  central  parenchyma. 

d.  Tracheids. 

c.     Porous  duct. 
/.     Cork  cells. 


296 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  J43.    SINAPIS  ALBA. 

a.  Epidermal  cells  with  mucilage,  vertical  view.  .    " 

b.  Collenchymatous   hypoderm. 

c.  Proteid   and   oil   bearing  parenchyma. 

d.  Mechanical  cells,  profile  view. 
c.  Mechanical   cells,   vertical   view. 

/.     Endosperm  cells,  entirely  filled  with  fat  and  proteid  matter. 

J72.     (Fig.  163.)     SINAPIS  ALBA.     White  Mustard.     U.  S. 

Moderately  fine. 

Yellow  mustard,  E.     Weisser  Senf,  G.     Moutarde  blanche,  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Sinapis  alba,  L.,  Crucifer3e. 

Light  yellowish  brown. 

Nearly   odorless ;    disagreeable,     somewhat   alliaceous    odor 
when  moist. 

Very  pungent. 

Epidermal  cells    large,  polygonal,  vertical  walls  very    thin. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  297 

containing  mucilage.  Hypoderm  of  large  collenchymatous  cells. 
A  layer  of  cells  rich  in  proteid  matter.  A  layer  of  peculiar 
mechanical  cup  shaped  palisade  cells  with  lower  portions  of  walls 
very  thick,  upper  part  thin.  Endosperm  cells  polygonal,  very 
thinwalled,  completely  filled  with  fat  and  proteid  matter. 
For  adulterations  see  black  mustard. 

J73.     SINAPIS  NIGRA.     Black  Mustard.     U.  S. 

Moderately  fine. 

Schwarzer  Senf,  G.     Moutarde  noir  (grise),  Fr. 

The  seeds  of  Siuapis  nigra,  L.,  Cruciferse. 

Reddish  brown. 

Odor  and  taste  as  for  white  mustard. 

Histology  closely  similar  to  that  of  white  mustard.  The 
mechanical  cells  (Fig.  143,  d.  e.),  are  however  a  bright  reddish 
brown  while  they  are  colorless  in  white  mustard.  Collenchyma 
cells  are  also  wanting. 

Ground  mustard  is  very  frequently  adulterated  with  flour, 
starch,  curcuma,  a  small  amount  of  capsicum ;  also  with  seeds  of 
other  species  of  Sinapis  and  Brassica. 

174.     (Ffjj.  J44.)    SPIGELIA.    Spigelia.    U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Pinkroot,  E.  Marylandische  Spigelie,  G.  Spigelie  du  Mary- 
land, Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Spigelia  marilandica,  L., 
Loganiacege. 

Light  brown. 

Somewhat  fragrantly  aromatic. 

Sweetish,  bitter. 

Some  brown  suberized  cells.  Parenchyma  cells  elongated, 
some  collenchymatous,  the  outer  cells  bearing  cystoliths ;  others 
contain  resinous  brown  coloring  matter.     Some  large,  finely  por- 


298 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


ous  bast-like  sclerenchyma  cells.       Numerous   tracheids   and  a 
few  porous  ducts. 

Carelessly  adulterated  with  roots  of  other  plants ;  sometimes 
intentionally  with  roots  of  Phlox  Carolina. 


Fig.  J44.    SPIGELIA. 

a.  Outer  parenchyma,  two  cells  with  cystoliths. 

b.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

c.  Parenchyma   cells,    longitudinal   view. 

d.  Cork  tissue. 
c.  Tracheids. 

175.     (Fig.  145.)     STAPHISAGRIA.    Staphisagria.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  6o. 

Stavesacre,  E.     Stephanskorner,  Lausekorner,  G.     Staphisaigre, 
Fr. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


299 


The  seeds  of  Delphinium  StapJiisagria,  L.,  Ranunculaceae. 

Very  dark. 

Heavy,  nauseous,  rancid. 

Very  bitter,  pungent. 

Enormous  epidermal  cells,  vertically  elongated,  thick-walled, 
brown,  with  warty  to  filamentous  cuticular  thickenings.  Groups 
of  longer  cells  alternate  with  groups  of  shorter  cells  causing  the 
pitted  appearance  of  the  seed.  Below  the  epidermis  a  thin-wall- 
ed parenchyma.  Endosperm  cells  polygonal,  walls  moderately 
thick,  not  very  porous,  filled  with  granular  proteid  matter  and 
fat. 


Fig.  145.*   STAPHISAGRIA. 

a.  Epidermal  cell,   vertical  view. 

h.  Two   epidermal  cells,   lateral   view. 

c.  Endosperm  cells. 

d.  Hypodermal  parenchyma. 


300 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  146.    STILLINGIA. 

a.  Parenchyma   with    starch,    crystals  and   some  brown   resin. 

b.  Cork    with    reddish   brown   coloring   matter. 

c.  Bast  fibres.  » 

d.  Reticulate  duct. 

c.     Porous  parenchyma,  longitudinal  view. 

f.  Tracheids. 

g.  Starch  and  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

J76.     (Fi^.  J46.)    STILLINGIA.     Stillingia.    U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Queen's  delight,  Silver  leaf,  E.     Stillingie,  G.,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Stilliiigia  sylvatica,  L.,  Euphorbiaceae. 
Rather  pale  reddish  brown. 
Somewhat  heavy,  musty. 
Bitter,  pungent. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


301 


Cork  tissue  with  reddish  brown  coloring  matter.  Parenchy- 
ma cells  filled  with  simple  and  compound  irregular  starch  gran- 
ules with  quite  distinct  slit-like  hili.  Some  parenchyma  cells, 
usually  smaller,  with  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxa- 
late. Some  typical  bast  fibres ;  tracheids  and  reticulate  ducts. 
Medullary  ray  cells  filled  with  starch. 


Fig.  147.    STRAMONIUM  LEAVES. 

a.  Upper  epidermis. 

b.  Lower  epidermis. 

c.  Trichomes. 

e.     Parenchyma    cells    of    petiole. 

d.  f,  g.     Epidermis,  palisade  cells  and  spongy  tissue  cells. 
h.     Glandular   trichomes. 

i.     Crystals. 


302  Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


J77.     (Fig.  J47.)     STRAMONIUM.     Stramonium  Leaves. 

U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Thornapple,  E.     Stechapfel,  G.     Stramoine,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Datura  Stramonium,  L.,  Solanaces. 

Bright  green. 

Heavy,  nauseous. 

Bitter. 

Vertical  walls  of  epidermal  cells  wavy,  those  of  lower  epi- 
dermis more  markedly  so.  Stomata  above  and  below.  Simple, 
three  to  six  celled,  rather  large  and  thinwalled  trichomes  with 
warty  cuticular  markings.  Glandular  trichomes.  Long  palis- 
ade cells,  spongy  tissue  cells  with  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate.  Prismatic  crystals  are  found  in  leaf  stalk  and  vascular 
bundles. 

Compare  with  leaves  of  belladonna  and  hyoscyamus. 

178.     STRAMONIUM.     Stramonium  Seeds. 

Fl.  ex.  30.    Tinct.  40. 

Names  and  origin  as  for  177. 

Very  dark  brown. 

Heavy,  nauseous ;  rancid  when  old. 

Bitter. 

Epidermal  cells  quite  large,  somewhat  rectangular  in  form, 
brownish  in  color ,  walls  greatly  thickened  with  numerous 
branching  pores;  outer  walls  wavy,  producing  warts  and  ridges 
as  seen  in  lateral  views.  Endosperm  cells  polygonal,  thickwalled, 
but  not  distinctly  porous,  bearing  crenate  aleuron  grains  and  fat. 
Concentrated  sulfuric  acid  colors  the  powder  deep  red. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


303 


Fig.  148.    STROPHANTUS. 

a.  Epidermis,  vertical  view. 

b.  Epidermis  and  trichome,  radial  view. 

c.  Trichomes. 

d.  Epidermis,   transverse  view. 

e.  Endosperm  tissue,  showing  oil  and  crystals. 

f.  Outer  tissue  with  granular  proteid  matter  and  starch. 

J79.     (Fig.  148.)    STROPHANTUS.     Strophantus.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.    Tinct.  30. 

Strophantiissamen,  G. 

The  seeds   (awns  removed)  of  Strophantus  hispidtts,  D.  C, 
Apocynacese. 

Pale  brown,  somewhat  oily. 

Heavy,  disagreeable. 

Very  bitter. 

Epidermal   cells  brown,   elongated,   outer   and  inner  walls 


304 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


thin,  vertical  walls  thick,  of  which  the  longitudinal  ones  are 
cylindrically  thickened,  as  seen  in  transverse  section.  Simple, 
single-celled,  thin-walled,  brown  trichomes.  Endosperm  cells 
thin-walled,  polygonal,  bearing  oil,  proteid  granules,  aggregate 
crystals  and  some  compound  starch. 

Strophantus  Komhi  and  other  species  and  varieties  of  stro- 
phantus require  further  study. 


Fig.  J49.    SUMBUL. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  resin. 

b.  Cork. 

c.  Tissue  below   the   cork,   bearing   reddish   brown   coloring   matter^ 

d.  Ducts. 

e.  Resin  masses. 

/.  Very  thinwalled,   collapsed  parenchyma. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  305 

J80.     (Fig.  J49.)     SUMBUL.     Sumbul  Root.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.    Tinct.  30. 

Sumbuhvurzel,  Moschuswurzel,  G.     Racine  de  sumbul,  Fr. 

The  roots  of  Ferula  Siiiiibul,  Hooker  jr.,  Umbelliferse. 

Light  brown,  resinous. 

Musk  odor. 

Bitter,  resinous  (sticky). 

Rather  abundant  brown  cork  tissue.  Very  spongy  paren- 
chyma of  thin-walled,  loosely  united  cells  bearing  abundant, 
irregular  masses  of  brownish  resin.  Below  the  cork  a  tissue  of 
elongated  brownish  cells  filled  with  brown  coloring  matter. 
Rather  large  brown  ducts,  varying  in  form  from  porous  to  reticu- 
late and  scalariform. 

Compare  with  the  histology  of  the  Russian  and  Indian 
varieties,  and  also  with  the  roots  of  Dorema  Amoniacum  (false 
sumbul  of  India). 

181.     (Fig.  150.)     TABACUM.     Tobacco.     (U.  S.,  J890.) 

Fine  powder,  as  snuff  and  insecticide, 

Tabak,  G.     Tabac,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Nicotiana  Tahaciim,  L.,  Solanacese. 

Dark  brown. 

Heavy,  characteristic;  variable  as  to  variety  and  manner  of 
curing  and  preparing. 

Pungent. 

Stomata  above  and  below ;  vertical  walls,  wavy  and  some- 
what porous.  Many-celled  simple  trichomes,  thinwalled;  most 
of  them  terminating  in  from  one  to  many  rather  small  secreting 
cells.  No  palisade  tissue.  Leaf  parenchyma,  with  rather  large 
cells  filled  with  crystal  sand  of  calcium  oxalate. 

Numerous  cultivated  varieties.  Extensively  adulterated  with 
a  great  variety  of  leaves  from  other  plants,  as  those  of  cabbage, 
beet,  chestnut,  rose,  cherry,  peach,  etc. 


3o6 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  150.     TABACUM. 

a.  Upper  epidermis.  ;' 

b.  Non-glandular   trichomes. 

c.  Glandular  trichomes. 

d.  Cells  with  crystals. 

e.  Parenchyma    (collenchymatous)    from   midrib. 
/.  Leaf  parenchyma  with  chlorophyll. 

J82.     (Fig.  15  J.)    TARAXACUM.    U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  30 

Dandelion,  E.     Lowenzahn,  Pfaffenrohrchen,  G.     Dent  de  lion, 

Fr. 

The  roots  of  Taraxacum  officinale,  Weber,  Compositse. 

Light  brown. 

Very  peculiar  disagreeable  odor. 

Sweetish,  somewhat  bitter. 

Some  brownish   cork.     Medium   sized   parenchyma  bearing 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


307 


inulin.       Laticiferoiis     ducts.     Typically     reticulate     ducts.     No 
starch.    No  tracheids  or  bast  fibres. 

Too  plentiful  to  be  extensively  adulterated. 


^S" 
^xx 


Fig.  J5I.    TARAXACUM. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  inulin. 

b.  Cork. 

c.  Reticulate  ducts. 

d.  Laticiferous  ducts. 

183.     {Fig.  152.)     THEA.     Tea. 
Rolled  leaves.    Tea-dust. 
Thee,  G.     The,  Fr. 

The  leaves    (younger  and  older)   of   Thea  Chineiisis.  Sims, 
Ternstroemiaceae. 

Very  dark  green. 
Fragrant;  tea-odor. 
Astringent,  bitterish. 


3o8 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Stomata  on  lower  surface  only,  very  numerous,  nearly  or- 
bicular. Vertical  walls  of  epidermal  cells  thick,  somewhat  wavy, 
with  nodular  thickenings.  Simple,  single-celled,  thick-walled 
trichomes.  A  few  large  branching  stone-cells  from  leaf  blade. 
Small  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate.  Leaf  parenchyma 
cells  thickwalled,  with  chlorophyll  and  aggregate  crystals. 

Adulterated  with  various  leaves,  as  willow  leaves,  poplar 
leaves,  etc.  Exhausted  leaves  are  dried,  rerolled  and  mixed  with 
jrood  tea. 


a.  Upper  epidermis. 

b.  Lower  epidermis. 

c.  Sclerenchyma  cells. 

d.  Trichomes. 

e.  Leaf  parenchyma. 
/.  Crystals. 


Fig.  152.     THEA. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


309 


Fig.  J53.    THEOBROMA. 

a.  Epidermal  cells  of  seed. 

b.  Endosperm  cells  with  fat  and  starch,  longitudinal  view. 

c.  Trichomes. 

d.  Mechanical  cells  of  hull. 

e.  Endosperm   cells. 
/.  Parenchyma. 

g.     Sclerenchyma,  top  view. 

J84.     (Fig.  153.)     THEOBROMA.     Cacao. 

Paste,  fine  powder. 

Cocoa,  E.     Kakoa,  G.     Cacoa,  Feves  du  Mexique,  Fr, 
The  seeds  of  Theobroma  Cacao,  L.,  Sterculiacese. 
Deep  reddish  brown ;  chocolate  brown. 
Mildly  fragrantly  aromatic. 
Bitter  and  astrinsrent. 


310 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Epidermal  cells  of  seed  small,  polygonal,  filled  with  deep 
brown  coloring  matter.  A  few  multicellular  deep  brown  tri- 
chomes.  Thinwalled,  collapsed  parenchyma;  sclerenchyma 
layer.  Endosperm  cells  thin-walled,  polygonal,  filled  with  fat 
and  some  compound  starch.  Hull  remnants  showing  mechani- 
cal tissue  of  rather  thickwalled,  mostly  elongated,  porous  cells. 
Spiral  duct  remnants  and  some  crystals. 

Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  variously  adulterated  with  ground 
hulls,  starch,  rice,  flour,  butter,  lard,  and  other  substances. 


Fig.  154.    TURNERA. 

a.  Upper  epidermis. 

b.  Lower  epidermis. 

c.  Epidermis,    lateral  view. 

d.  Trichomes. 

c.  Resin  bearing  tissue  of  leaf  and  petiole. 

/.  Crystal  bearing  parenchyma. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  311 

185.     (Fig.  154.)     Tornera.     Damiana. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

The  leaves  of  Tiinicra  aphrodisiaca,  Ward,  and  several 
other  species  of  Turncm,  Tunieraceae. 

Green;  soon  turning  brown. 

SHghtly  aromatic. 

Somewhat  pungent. 

Stomata  on  lower  surface  only.  Vertical  walls  of  epidermal 
cells  somewhat  wavy,  thin;  cuticle  thick  with  linear  markings. 
Simple,  single-celled,  somewhat  bent  and  coiling  thickwalled 
trichomes  with  cuticular  markings.  Abundant  tissue  with  deep 
reddish  brown  resin.  Numerous  aggregate  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate. 

Compare  with  T.  diffusa,  T.  microphylla,  and  Aplopappus 
discoidca  (false  damiana). 

186.     (Fig.  J55.)    ULMUS.     Slippery  Elm.     U.  S. 

Moderately  fine  to  quite  fine. 

Elm  bark,  E.  Ulmenrinde,  Riisterrinde,  G.  Orme  fauve, 
Orme  Champetre,  Fr. 

The  inner  bark  of  Ulmns  fulva,  Michx.,  Urticese. 

Very  light  brown. 

Odor  of  fenugreek. 

Very  mucilaginous;  tasteless. 

Bits  of  the  outer  bark  are  usually  present,  therefore  brown 
cells  may  be  found,  no  sclerenchyma.  Inner  bark  parenchyma  cells 
comparatively  small,  thinwalled,  rather  closely  united;  porous, 
elongated  sieve  tube  like  elements,  and  medullary  ray  tissue  plenti- 
ful. Numerous  very  characteristic  prismatic  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate;  they  occur  in  twos,  each  crystal  having  a  hilum-like  dot 
in  the  middle.  Enormous  mucilage  cells.  Starch  deficient. 
Numerous  bast  fibres  with  thick  walls. 

Very  frequently  adulterated  with  flour.  Compare  with  U. 
campcstris  and  U.  Americana. 


312 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


^:i% 


Fig.  155.*    ULMUS. 

a.  Inner  bark  parenchyma. 

b.  Medium  sized  mucilage  cell. 

c.  Characteristic  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

d.  Bast  fibres. 

e.  Porous,  tracheid-like  elements. 

JS7.     (Fig.  J56.)    UVA  URSI.    Uva  Ursi.     U.  S. 
Fl.  ex.  30. 

Bearberry  leaves,  E.  Barentraiibenblatter,  G.  Busserole,  Rai- 
sin cl'ours,  Fr. 

The  leaves  of  Arctostaphylos  Uva  ursi,  Sprengel,  Ericaceae. 

Greenish  brown. 

Somewhat  fragrant. 

Very  astringent,  bitter. 

Epidermal  cells  polygonal,  upper  larger  than  lower ;  large 
orbicular  stomata  on  lower  surface  only.  Cuticle  thick,  yellow- 
ish. Leaf  parenchyma  cells  with  oil  globules.  Prismatic  crys- 
tals of  calcium  oxalate.    Thickwalled  parenchymatous  tissue. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


313 


Adulterated   with    leaves    of   cowberry,    red   whortleberry, 
sand  myrtle,  box,  trailing  arbutus,  and  chimaphila. 


Fig.  156.    UVA  URSI. 

a.  Upper  epidermis. 

b.  Lower  epidermis. 

e.  Parenchyma  of  leaf  blade. 

d.  Palisade  tissue  cells  with  oil  globules  and  chlorophyll  grains. 

e.  Parenchyma  from  leaf  blade. 
/.  Crystals. 

g.  Parenchyma  with  crystals. 

188.     (Fig.  J57.)     VALERIAN.     Valerian.     U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.     Tinct.  60. 

Baldrianwurzel,  G.     Valeriane,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  roots  of  Valeriana  officinalis,  L.,  Valer- 
ianaceae. 


314 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Rather  light  brown. 

Disagreeable,   characteristic  valerian  odor. 

Bitter. 
Some  brown  cork  tissue.    Parenchyma  cells  thickwalled,  more 
or  less  irregular  in  form,  tangentially  flattened,  and  filled  with 
compound  (mostly  twos)   starch  granules.     Porous   ducts   and 
tracheids  and  some  spiral  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  other  roots  and  rhizomes.    Compare  Ger- 
man and  English  valerian. 


Fig.  157.    VALERIAN. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch,  transverse  view. 

b.  Parenchyma,    longitudinal    view. 

c.  Cork. 

d.  Tracheids. 

e.  Spiral  duct. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  315 


Fig.  158.    VANILLA. 

a.  Epidermal  cells,  vertical  view,   showing  crystals  of  vanillin. 

b.  Hypodermal  cells. 

c.  Epidermis,  transverse  view. 

(/.  Parenchyma   cells  with  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,   long.  view, 

r.  Crystals  of  calcium  oxalate. 

f.  Tracheids. 


J89.     (Fi^.  t58.)    VANILLA.     Vanilla.     U.  S. 

Bruised.     Powdered. 
V'anille,  G.,  Fr. 

The  unripe  fruit  of  Vanilla  planifolia,  Andrews,  Orchidacese. 

Brown. 

\'ery  fragrant,  characteristic  vanilla  odor. 

Bitter. 


3i6 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Epidermis  of  polygonal  cells  with  porous  walls,  filled  with 
granular  substance,  and  each  cell  contains  a  prismatic  crystal  of 
vanillin.  Hypoderm  of  elongated  somewhat  collenchymatous 
cells.  Parenchyma  cells  thinwalled  collapsed,  containing  brown 
coloring  matter,  oil,  and  some  cells  long  acicular  crystals  of 
calcium  oxalate.  Numerous  tracheids.  (Numerous  black  min- 
ute seeds.) 


Fig.  159.     VERATRUM  VIRIDE. 

a.  Parenchyma  cells  with  starch. 

b.  Raphides. 

c.  Epidermal  cells. 

d.  Sclerenchyma   cells   of   endoderm,   transverse   view. 
c.  Ducts  and  tracheids. 

/.  Spiral  duct. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  317 

J90.    {Fig.  J59.)     VERATRUM  VIRIDE.     Veratrum.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  60.    Tinct.  60. 

American  or  green  veratrum,  American  hellebore,  Indian  poke,  E. 
■  Gruner  Germer,  G.    Veratre  vert,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  and  rootlets  of  Vcratnim  viride,  Aiton,  Melan- 
thaceee. 

Light  brownish  gray. 

Odorless ;  somewhat  disagreeable  when  moist. 

Very  pungent,  bitter. 

Epidermal  cells  brownish,  rather  thickwalled.  Parenchyma 
cells  medium  in  size,  filled  with  compound  starch  granules;  some 
rophides.  Selerenchyma  cells  with  unequally  thickened  walls  of 
endoderm  sheath  of  rhizome.  Tracheids;  reticulate  and  spiral 
ducts. 

Compare  with  Veratum  album. 

\9t.    (Fig.  J60.)    VIBURNUM  OPULUS.    Cramp  Bark. 

U.S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Cranberry  tree,  E.     Wasserholder,  G.     Obier,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Viburnum  opulus,  L.,  Caprifoliacese. 

Pale  brown. 

Odorless. 

Bitter,  astringent. 

Outer  bark  of  small-celled,  thickwalled  cork;  middle  bark 
of  small  cells  bearing  reddish  brown  coloring  matter.  Numer- 
ous bast  fibres  and  crystal  bearing  fibres.  Some  isolated  larger, 
irregular,  bent,  twisted  and  branching  bast  cells.  Numerous 
inner  bark  parenchyma  cells  with  prismatic  crystals.  Some 
larger  parenchyma  cells  with  larger  crystals. 


3i8 


PowDiiRED  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Fig.  160.     VIBURNUM  OPULUS. 

(J.     Normal  bast  fibres. 

b.  Inner  baric  parenchyma  with  crystals. 

c.  Branching  bast  cells. 

d.  Short  bast  cells. 

c.     Parenchyma  with   larger  crystals. 
/.     Loose  parenchyma  of  spheroidal  cells. 
g,  h.     Outer  parenchyma. 
/.     Outer  cork. 

192.     (Fi^.  \6\.)    VIBURNUM  PRUNIFOLIUM. 
Black  Haw.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  60. 

Sweet  vibtirnum,  E.     Amerikanische  Schnceballcnl)anmrincle,  G. 

The  bark  of  Vibuniiini  pninifoliimi,  L.,  Caprifoliace?e. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders. 


319 


Light  reddish  grown. 

Aromatic,  valerian-Hke   odor. 

Bitter,  somewhat  astringent. 

Outer  rather  large-celled  cork.  Outer  portion  of  middle 
bark  of  tangentially  flattened  cells  bearing  some  starch.  Inner 
parenchyma  bearing  numerous  aggregate  and  prismatic  crystals 
of  calcium  oxalate.  Numerous  yellowish,  thickwalled,  porous 
sclerenchyma  cells,  some  of  which  are  branching.  No  bast,  but 
some  wood  fibres  from  the  wood  are  to  be  found. 


Fig.  i6U    VIBURNUM  PRUNIFOLIUM. 

a.  Sclerenchyma. 

b.  Outer  bark  parenchyma,  vertical  view. 

c.  Inner,  smaller  celled,  parenchyma  with  crystals. 

d.  Cork.  I 

e.  Wood  fibres. 
/.  Crystals. 


320 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


193.     (Fig.  162.)    WINTERA.     Wintcr^s  Bark. 
Fl.  ex.  6o. 
Winter's  Zimmt,  G,     Ecorce  de  Winter,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Drimys  Winteri,  Foerster,  Magnoliaceae. 

Cinnamon  brown. 

Aromatic,  camphoraceous. 

Very  pungent,  somewhat  bitter. 

Outer  bark  cells  filled  with  reddish  brown  coloring  matter^ 
Inner  bark  perenchyma  mostly  empty;  numerous  larger  cells 
filled  with  a  bright  yellow  resin.  Sclerenchyma  cells  much  as 
in  coto  and  paracoto,  pores  large,  some  filled  with  brown  granu- 
lar matter. 

Confused  with  and  substituted  for  coto  and  paracoto. 


Fig.  162.    WINTERA. 

a,  b,  c,  d,  e.     Sclerenchyma  cells. 

/,  h,  j.     Parenchyma  cells  with  resin. 

g.     Outer  bark  cells  with  reddish  brown   coloring  matter    (0- 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  321 


Fig.  163.    XANTHOXYLUM. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  crystals  and  granular  contents. 

b.  Parenchj-ma  and  resin  cells   (c). 
d.  Sclerenchyma. 

c.  Bast. 

f.  Collenchymatons  tissue. 

g.  Outer  bark. 

(J94.     Fig.  J43.)     XANTHOXYLUM.     Prickly  Ash.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30. 

Toothache  tree,  Angelica  tree,  Suterberry,  E.     Zahnwehrinde, 
G.     ClavaHer,  Frene  epineux,  Fr. 

The  bark  of  Xanthoxylnm  fraxineum,  Willd.,  Rutace?e. 

Light  brown. 

Odorless. 

Very  pungent,  bitterish.  : 


322 


Powdered  Vegetable  Drugs. 


Outer  bark  of  cork  with  brown  cell-contents.  CoUenchy- 
matous  middle  bark.  Inner  bark  of  parenchyma,  of  mostly  elon- 
gated cells,  short  crystal  bearing  cells  and  groups  of  phloem 
tissue ;  large  yellow  resin  bearing  cells.  Both  prismatic  and  ag- 
gregate crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  abundant.  Yellow  scleren- 
chyma  cells  and  some  bent,  twisted  and  somewhat  branching 
bast  cells. 

Ma}'-  be  adulterated  with  bark  of  other  species,  angustura 
and  false  ang-ustura. 


Fig.  164.    ZINGIBER. 

a.  Parenchyma  with  starch  and  one  cell  with  resin,  transverse  view. 

b.  Parenchyma,   longitudinal   view. 

c.  Cork,  vertical  view. 

d.  Tracheids. 

e.  Ducts. 


Special  Description  of  Vegetable  Powders.  323 

195.     (Fig.  J64.)     ZINGIBER.     Ginger.     U.  S. 

Fl.  ex.  30.    Tinct.  40.    As  a  spice. 

Ingwer,  G.     Gingembre,  Fr. 

The  rhizomes  of  zingiber  officinale,  Roscoe,  Scitamineae. 

Peeled — Light  yellowish  brown. 

Unpeeled — Darker. 

Aromatic;  ginger  odor. 

Very  pungent. 

Polygonal,  brownish  cork  tissue  of  the  unpeeled  or  only  par- 
tially peeled  article.  Parenchyma  cells  large,  loosely  united,  filled 
with  large,  simple  oval  to  elliptical  starch  granules;  some  cells 
with  resin  varying  in  color  from  bright  lemon  yellow  to  bright 
reddish  brown.  Some  tracheids  and  rather  large  reticulate  to 
nearly  spiral  ducts. 

Adulterated  with  starch,  flour,  chalk,  capsicum,  mustard, 
exhausted  ginger,  etc. 


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